COLUMBIA  LIBRARIES  OFFSITE 

HEALTH  SCIENCES  STANDARD 


m.i 


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Columbia  ®nibersjtp 

in  ti)E  Citp  of  ^etD  |?orfe 

COLLEGE  OF  PHYSICIANS 
AND  SURGEONS 


Reference  Library 

Given  by 


PREFACE. 

The  outlines  and  laboratory  exercises  here  pre- 
sented are  the  outg-rowth  of  the  work  in  Physiology 
in  the  author's  classes,  and  it  is  at  the  request  of 
several  fellow  teachers  that  they  now  appear  in  print. 
The  work  has  been  with  pupils  who  hav^e  not  had 
previous  training-  in  the  other  science  subjects.  Logi- 
cally, Physiology  should  follow  the  work  in  Zoolog}', 
Physics  and  Chemistry,  in  a  course  of  study,  but,  at 
present,  most  schools  require  that  this  study  be  pur- 
sued early  in  the  course,  consequently  it  is  necessary 
that  a  little  Chemistry  and  Physics,  and  Zoology  and 
Anatomy  precede  the  real  work  in  hand,  and  this  ex- 
plains why  the  introductory  chapter  presents  what 
it  does.  It  will  be  found  desirable  to  do  the  work  in- 
dicated in  this  chapter  and,  if  the  students  cannot  be 
taken  into  the  chemical  laboratory  to  perform  the 
experiments  individually,  they  should  be  made  be- 
fore the  class  by  the  teacher.  Whenever  possible, 
each  student  should  do  the  laboratory  work  for  him- 
self. 

It  is  thought  that  the  outlines  are  so  general  that 
they  may  be  used  with  almost  any  text,  but  the}^ 
follow  more  closely  the  works  of  Dr.  Newell  Martin 
than  any  other.  The  outlines  are  not  intended  to  be 
exhaustive  but  rather  suggestive,  and  the  student  is 
supposed  to  elaborate  on  the  various  subjects  as  far 
as  the  time  will  allow.     On  the  other  hand,   some  of 


IV  PREFACE 

the  subjects  ma}-  be  too  complex  for  beg'inning'  classes, 
and  in  such  cases  they  ma}'  be  omitted. 

The  dissections  and  experiments  should  all  be 
carefully  made,  so  far  as  the  apparatus  and  other 
conditions  will  permit,  since  the  subject  is  one  especi- 
ally suited  to  laboratory  methods.  No  effort  should 
be  spared  to  secure  the  additional  apparatus  and  ma- 
terial for  the  work  as  suggested.  Text-book  work 
alone  in  Physiolog"}'  is  ver}'  unsatisfactor}'. 

Each  student  should  keep  a  neat  note-book  in 
which  drawing's  are  made  and  the  results  of  all  ex- 
periments and  observations  recorded,  as  well  as  ex- 
tracts of  articles  read  in  reference  books. 

At  the  close  of  the  pamphlet  will  be  found  a  list 
of  standard  reference  books  on  the  subject,  together 
with  a  few  of  the  more  common  text' books  now  in 
use.  To  economiije  space,  each  reference  work  has 
been  given  a  number  and  these  numbers  occur  in  bold 
faced  type  throughout  the  text,  followed,  usually,  b}- 
the  page  on  which  the  information  is  to  be  found. 
In  case  the  number  of  the  reference  alone  is  given, 
the  student  should  consult  its  index.  It  is  not  sup- 
posed that  every  school  will  posses  all  the  works  of 
reference  included  in  the  list,  but  every  school  should 
have  some  of  them.  Nothing  can  be  more  unsatis- 
factory in  a  subject  like  Phj^siology  than  to  confine 
the  student  to  a  single  text-book. 

Individual  members  of  the  class  should  be  assign- 
ed subjects  for  investigation,  reports  on  which  ma}' 
be  made  either  orally  or  in  writing.  Such  investi- 
gations should  include  as  much  reference  work  as 
possible,  as  well  as  laboratory  observation. 


PREFACE  V 

If  this  pamphlet  should  help  some  teacher  to 
teach  or  some  student  to  pursue  the  subject  of  Phjsi- 
olog"y  according-  to  modern  scientific  methods,  it  will 
have  served  its  purpose.  The  author  invites  critic- 
isms and  sugg-estions  from  fellow  teachers  for  the 
improvement  of  future  editions.  A  few  typographi- 
cal errors  have  crept  in,  but  none,  so  far  discovered, 
are  of  a  serious  nature. 

I  wish  here  to  acknowledg-e  my  obligations  to  Mr. 
Carl  J.  Ulrich,  mj  assistant,  who  has  aided  in  the 
preparation  of  some  of  the  outlines  and  laboratory 
exercises,  and  to  my  wife  who  has  assisted  in  reading 
the  proof. 

U.  O.  C. 
Mankato,  Minn., 
December  16,  1899. 


CONTENTS, 


INTRODUCTION,             -            -  -               1 

Syllabus,                _            .                .  i 

Introducton'  outline,         -  -         1 

The  cell,                 ...  5 

Laboratory  exercisls,         -             -  -        7 

Chemistry,                  -                 -  -             7 

The  microscope,             -                 -  14 

Use  of  the  microscope,         -  -        15 

The  cell,             ...  18 

SUPPORTING  TISSUES,                -  -              23 

Syllabus,        -                   -                   -  23 

Laboratory   exercises,            -  -        31 

Connective  tissues,         -             -  -      31 

Cartilage,             -                 -  -           33 

Bones,             _             .             .  .                 34 

Joints,                     -                         -  -         38 

MOTOR  TISSUES,             -                    .  .          40 

Syllabus,            -                   -               -  40 

Laboratory  exercises,            -  -            43 

Amoeboid  cells,              -             -  -        43 

Ciliated  cells,         -             -  -                44 

Striated  muscle,             -            -  -           46 

Unstriated  muscle,                  -  -         49 

Cardiac  muscle,                  -  -                 49 

Physiology  of  muscle,                 -  -         50 


CONTENTS  VII 

DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND   DIGES- 
TION,                  -                   -               -  55 
SyllabUvS,            -                -                -                -  55 
Alimentary  canal,                  -                 -  55 
P^ods,                 .                 -                 _  60 
Digestion,                     -                 -             -  62 
Labokatoky  exercises,            -            -  64 
Dissection  of  a  mammal,             -             -  64 
The  human  alimentary  canal,         -  69 
Oesopliag"Us,  stomach  and  intestine,  70 
Foods,                    -                    -                 -70 
Dig-estion,                         -                     -  74 
CIRCULATORY  TISSUES,                -                -  78 
SyllabUvS,                    -            -                -  78 
Labokatoky  ExERCivSEvS,                -                -  83 
The  blood,                     -            ,         -  83 
The  heart  and  blood  vessels,             -  86 
Arteries,  veins  and  capillaries,             -  91 
The  circulation,                 -               -          .  94 
RESPIRATORY    TISSUES    AND    RESPIRA- 
TION,                       -                -                -  102 
Syi,i,abus,            .                    -                -  102 
Laboratory  exercises,                -                -  104 
The  air  passag-es  and  the  lungs,  104 
Respiration,                     -                     -  106 
EXCRETORY  TISSUES,                   -               -  109 
Syi^eabus,             -                    -                -  109 
Laboratory  exercises,                   -  112 
The  kidneys,                         -                     -  112 
The  skin,                     -                     -  115 


VIII  CONTENTS 

NERVOUS  TISSUES,  -                   -        117 

Syllabus,                   -  -                    117 

Laboratory  exercises,  -               -           125 

SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE,  132 

Syllabus,                   -  -            -           132 

Special  senses,             -  -                 132 

The  voice,  -                     -         139 

Laboratory  exercises,        -  -                 140 

The  eye,                     -  -                -           140 

The  ear,             -                 -  -               147 

Taste  and  smell,  -                 -         148 

Touch  and  temperature,  -                    149 

The  voice,                     -  -             150 

REFERENCE  BOOKS,  -                   -      152 

Appendix,                    -  -                    155 

Dissecting,            •              ^-  -            155 

Hardening  and  preserving  fluids,         -        155 

Stains,                    -  -                -             158 

Staining,            -                -  -                    159 

Other  Solutions,  -                   -        160 

Imbedding,                    -  -                      160 

Sectioning,            -  -                  -        163 

Mounting,                       -  -                  164 

Injecting  blood  vessels,  -            165 

Preparation  of  bones,  -                -        166 


INTRODUCTION 


INTRODUCTORY  OUTLINE. 

Matter. 
la.  Inorg"atiic. 
lb.  Definition. 

2b.   Some  studies  treating-  of. 
Ic.  Inorg-anic  chemistry. 
Id.   Some  elements  common  in  animal  bodies.  4, 
9,  20;  16,  1-5;  2,  14. 
le.  Ox3^g-en.      4,  23-33. 

If.  Oxidation.      2,  78-82. 
2e.  Hjdrog-en.    4,  34. 
3e.  Nitrog-en.      4,  50. 
4e.   Carbon.     4,   125. 
5e.  Sulphur.     4,  157. 
6e.  Phosphorus.     4,  193. 
7e.  Chlorine.      4,  92. 
Be.  Sodium.      4,  326. 
9e.  Potassium.     4,  321. 
lOe.  Calcium.     4,  313. 
lie.  Mag-nesium.      4,  316. 
12e.  Iron.      4,  275. 
13e.  Others  which  are  rare. 
If.  Fluorine.    4,  122. 
2f.  Silicon.      4,  184. 
3f.  Lithium.      4,   335. 
4f.  Mang-anese.      4,  295. 
5f.  Iodine.    4,  115. 


INTRODUCTION 

2d.   Some     of     the    common     inorganic     com- 
pounds found  in  animal  bodies, 
le.  Air  (air  is  a  mixture,  however,  and  not  a 
compound). 
If.  Composition.      4,  82-84. 
2e.  Water. 

If.  Composition.     4,  40-43. 
3e.  Carbon  dioxide.    4,  138. 

If.  Composition. 
4e.  Ammonia.      4,  52. 
If.  Composition. 
2f.  What  is  an  alkali?     1. 
5e.  Acids. 

If.  What?    1,  4,  75. 

2f.  Hydrochloric.      4,  117. 

Ig-.  It  is  the   only    inorganic   acid  found 
free  in  the  body. 
6e.  Salts.       1;  4,  77. 
If.  Common  salt. 
2f.  Calcium  carbonate. 
3f.  Sodium  carbonate. 
4f.  Sodium  phosphate. 
2c.  Physics. 

Id.   Physical  terms  used  in  speaking  of  animal 
ph3'siolog3\      1 . 
le.   Force. 
2e.   Resistance. 
3e.  Gravitation. 
4e.  Pressure. 
5e.  Tension. 
6e.  Friction. 
7e.  Weight. 
8e.  Work. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

9e.  Heat. 
lOe.  Conduction. 
lie.  Radiation. 

12e.   Dissipation  (referring-  to  heat). 
3c.  Astronomy. 
4c.  Geolog-y. 
2a.  Organic. 

lb.  Definition. 
.  2b.   Study  of. 
Ic.  Biology. 

Id.   Definition.     1. 

2d.  Some  common  studies  treating-  of. 
le.  Botan}-. 
2e.  Zoolog}'. 
If.  Definition. 

2f.  Animals  studied  as  to  chemical  compo- 
sition. 

Ig.  Organic  chemistry. 

Ih.  Albumens  or  proteids.    *^,  15-16. 
li.  Serum  albumen.      1  1 ,  V,  14. 
2i.  Fibrin.     1.1,  V,  32. 
3i.   Myosin.      11,  V,  30. 
4i.  Casein.       11,  V,  20. 
2h.  Hydrocarbons  or  fats.      2,  16;  1  1, 
V,  121-122. 
li.  Palmatin. 
2i.  Stearin. 
3i.   Olein. 
3h.   Carbohydrates      or    starches    and 
sugars.     2,  16. 
li.   Glycogen.      11,V,  95. 
2i.   Glucose   or  '  grape    sugar.       1  1 , 
V,  102. 


INTRODUCTION 

3i.  Lactose  or  milk  sugar.    11,V,113. 
3f.  Animals  studied  as  to  structure. 
Ig.   Anatomy.    2,  1-2;  5,  5;  7,  9;  O,  4. 
Ih.  Gross. 

21i.   Minute  (histology).     :^,  2. 
31i.  Comparative. 
4f .   Animals  studied  as  to  function  of  organs. 
Ig.  Physiology.       2,  1;  5,  5;  7,  9;  G,  4. 
Ih.   Comparative. 
5f.  Animals  studied  as  to  healthy  condi- 
tions surrounding  them. 
Ig.  Hygiene. 
6f.  Animals  studied  as  to  mental  traits. 

Ig.  Psychology.     1. 
7f.   Animals  studied  as  to  development. 

Ig.   Embryology.     1. 
8f.  Animals  studied  as  to  classification. 
Ig.  Main  groups. 

Ih.   Invertebrates.     1. 

li.  Definition. 
2h.  Vertebrates.      1. 
li.   Definition. 

2i.  Difference    between    vertebrates 
and  invertebrates  (zoologies). 
3i.   Main  divisions  of. 
Ij.   Fishes. 

2j.  Batrachians  or  Amphibians. 
3j.  Reptiles. 
4j.  Birds. 
5j.   Mammals. 

Ik.  Groups  of.     J^*^;  1;  *^(). 
■     11.   Monotremata   (Duckmole). 
21.   Marsupials. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

31.  Eutheria. 

Itn.  Edentates  (Armadillo). 
2m.   Sirenia  (Sea  cows). 
3m.  Ung-Lilates. 
4m.  Cetaceans. 
5m.  Rodents. 
6m.  Carnivora. 
7m.  Insectivora. 
Sm.   Chiroptera. 
9m.  Lemuroidea      ) 
10m.   Anthropoidea   j 

Primates. 

In.  Marmosets.  ) 
2n.  Cebidec  f 

New  world, 
monkeys. 

3n.  Cercopithecida^  (Bab- 
oons). 
4n.   Simiidze  (Anthropoid 

apes). 
5n.  Hominidec  or  men. 
4i.  Reasons  why  man  is  classed  as  a 
vertebrate.      3,  5;  3,  2-5. 
Ij.   Arrang^ement  of  body  cavities 
and  organs.      2,  4,  5,  6,  7; 
8,2-7. 
2j.   Spinal  column. 
5i.   Why  classed  as  an  Anthropoid? 
3,  2. 


THE  CELL. 

la.  Definition.      1. 

2a.  History.      ^O,  under  cell;  25,  22. 


G  INTRODUCTION 

3a.  Structure,  11,1,3-9;  12,  35-39;   15,  5-8;   17, 

33-40;  (),  9;  7,  10-14;  25,  22-28, 
lb.  The  cell  wall, 
2b.  The  cell  contents. 

Ic.  The  chief  cell  substance  (protoplasm), 22,26. 
2c.  Nucleus. 
4a.   Sixe.       0,  11. 
5a.   Shapes. 

6a.  Metabolism  (assimilation).     6,  13. 
7a.  Catabolism  (dissimilation). 
8a.  Reproduction.       1  7,  98. 
lb.   Direct  division.      3,  18. 
2b.  Indirect  division.     3,  19-22. 

Ic.  Karjokinesis  or  mitosis.      17,100-104. 
9a.  Physiolog-ical  properties.    3,  22-28. 
lb.  Irritability. 
2b.  Conductivity. 
3b.  Contractilit3\ 
4b.  Coordination. 
5b.   Spontaneity. 
10a.   Development  of  in  the  human  body, 
lb.  Early  stages  of  in  the  embryo. 
2b.  Differentiation  of  into  tissues  and   organs,    17, 
40;  3,  29. 
Ic.  Definition  of  tissue. 
2c.   Definition  of  org-an. 
3c.  Undifferentiated.     3,  22. 

4c.  Physiolog"ical  division  of  labor.     2,  12;  3,  30. 
*)5c.  Chief  g^roups  of  tissues  and  organs. 


")  In  some  respects  this  grouping  is  an  arbitrary  one  made  for 
convenience  only.  All  of  the  topics,  except  number  gd,  will  be  con- 
sidered later.  Some  teachers  believe  that  the  order  in  which  the 
topics  are  discussed  is  of  great  importance,  but  since  any  one  of  the 


INTRODUCTION  7 

Id.   Supporting-. 
2d.  Motor. 

3d.  Those  concerned  in  nutrition  (assimilative), 
le.  Secretor}'  (g-lands). 
2e.  Reception  (alimentary  canal). 
4d.   Circulatory  (heart  and  bloodvessels). 
5d.  Respiratory  (lung-s,   air    tubes    and   capil- 
laries). 
6d.  Eliminative  (kidneys,  skin,  etc.). 
7d.  Irritable  and  conductive  (nervous  system). 
8d.   Special  sense  (sight,  hearing-,  smell,  taste, 

touch  and  temperature). 
9d.  Reproductive. 
10a.  Bacteria.     17,  lOS;  5,  144;  27;  28;  31;  34;  37. 
lb.  beneficial. 
2b.  Disease  producing-. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


CHEMISTRY. 

Matkrials.  Small  quantities  of  each :  potassi- 
um chlorate;  mang-anese  dioxide;  common  salt; 
hj^drochloric  acid;  sulphuric  acid;  mag-nesium 
ribbon;  phosphorus;  sulphur;  metal  sodium;  met- 
al potassium;  pieces  of  zinc;  yeast,  sugar;  com- 
mercial ammonia  and  common  salt.  An  alcohol 
lamp  or  gas  burner.  A  number  of  test  tubes; 
two  or  three  widemouthed  bottles;  some  fine 
iron  wire,  a  pan  or  dish  for  water;  pieces  of 
charcoal,  coal,  lignite  and  graphite;  some  lime 

groups  will  depend  more  or  less  on  the  others  there  can  be  no   great 
objection  to  following  the  usual  order. 


INTRODUCTION 


water;  several  corks;  glass  tubing-;  red  and  blue 
litmus  paper. 


1.  Experiments.  Fill  a  test-tube  one-fourth  full 
with  equal  parts  of  potassium  chlorate  and  man- 
ganese dioxide  which  have  previously  been  mix- 
ed. Heat  the  tube  gently  over  a  flame  and  look 
for  bubbles  of  gas,  oxygen,  which  will  be  given 
off  by  the  decomposition  of  the  chemicals.  In- 
sert a  splinter  or  match  which  has  a  spark  on 
its  end  into  the  mouth  of  the  tube.  What  is 
the  effect?  Has  oxygen  any  color,  taste  or 
odor? 

2.  Make  some  more  oxygen,  or  if  the  laboratory 
has  an  oxygen  tank  take  it  from  that,  and  fill  a 
bottle.  Since  ox3^gen  is  heavier  than  air  the 
bottle  may  be  filled  by  holding  it  mouth  up- 
wards and  then  allowing  the  oxygen  to  run  in 
through  a  tube  connected  with  the  test-tube  or 
gas  holder.  After  the  oxygen  has  been  running 
into  the  bottle  for  a  moment,  remove  the  supply 
tube  and  prepare  a  fine  iron  wire  by  rolling  up 
one  end  and  dipping  it  into  powdered  sulphur. 
Ignite  the  sulphur.  What  is  the  color  of  the 
flame?  Insert  the  wire  with  the  burning  sul- 
phur into  the  bottle  of  oxygen.  Vigorous  com- 
bustion should  follow  and  a  part  of  the  wire 
should  be  consumed.  Would  iron  burn  under 
ordinary  circumstances  in  open  air?  The  experi- 
ment just  made  illustrates  rapid  combustion. 
The  same  kind  of  combustion  is  illustrated  by 
the  burning  of  wood  in  the  stove  and  oil  in  the 
lamp. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

What  happens  to  a  piece  of  polished  iron  if 
put  in  a  damp  place?  Iron  rust  is  commonly 
formed  b}^  slow  combustion. 

What  happens  to  damp  straw  when  left  in  a 
pile?     Is  any  heat  g-iven  off? 

Notice  that  two  things  always  happen  where 
oxidation  goes  on,  viz.,  new  compounds  are 
formed  and  heat  is  given  off.  How  do  these 
facts  help  us  to  understand  the  human  body? 

3.  Put  a  few  pieces  of  common  metallic  zinc 
into  a  bottle  or  test-tube  and  pour  on  the  same 
a  small  quantit}^  of  hvdrochloric  acid.  Notice 
the  bubbles  of  hyclrog'en  that  are  generated. 
Hold  a  test-tube,  inverted,  over  the  mouth  of  the 
bottle  until  some  of  the  hydrogen  has  been  col- 
lected in  the  inverted  tube.  Still  holding  the 
tube  inverted  apply  a  lighted  match  to  its 
mouth.  What  follows?  Hydrogen  explodes 
when  mixed  with  air  (oxygen.)  It  is  rarely 
found  free,  in  nature  and  then  only  in  very 
small  quantities.  Determine  from  the  above 
experiment  whether  hydrogen  is  heavier  or 
lighter  than  air. 

4.  Fill  a  pan  or  dish  with  water  and  float  on 
this  a  slice  of  cork  in  which  is  fastened  a  piece 
of  crayon.  Hollow  out  the  top  of  the  crayon 
and  in  the  hollow  place  a  lump  of  phosphorus 
the  size  of  a  pea.  Have  ready  a  six  ounce 
bottle  with  a  mouth  wide  enough  to  easily  pass 
over  the  floating  cork.  With  a  hot  wire  ignite 
the  phosphorus  and  immediately  invert  the 
bottle  over  the  same.  What  did  the  bottle  con- 
tain before  the  experiment  was  performed?  What 


10  INTRODUCTION 

element  is  necessary  before  combustion  can  take 
place?  What  proportion  of  the  air  seems  to  be 
'  oxyg-en?  Allow  the  bottle  to  remain  in  posi- 
tion after  the  experiment  until  the  white  fumes 
have  been  absorbed.  The  g"as  that  now  remains 
in  the  bottle  above  the  water  is  nitrogen, 
a  very  inactive  gas  when  free.  Insert  a  lighted 
match  into  the  bottle  of  nitrogen.     Effect? 

5.  Examine  pieces  of  hard  and  soft  coal,  char- 
coal, lignite,  graphite  (the  lead  in  your  pencil), 
burned  bread,  in  fact  any  charred  substance. 
These  substances  are  carbon.  Nearly  all 
organic  substances  contain  this  element. 

().  Examine  some  powdered  and  stick  snlplmr. 
Has  it  any  odor?  Burn  a  little  sulphur  and 
notice  the  odor. 

7.  Examine  phospliorns  as  it  is  kept  in  a 
bottle.  Why  must  it  be  kept  under  water? 
Never  under  an}-  circumstance  touch  phos- 
phorus with  the  hands.  It  will  ignite  at  the 
temperature  of  the  body  and  its  burn  is  serious. 
With  forceps  put  a  small  piece  of  phosphorus  on 
a  hard  surface  then  rub  it  with  a  hard  object. 
Why  does  it  take  fire?  What  is  the  chief  source 
of  commercial  phosphorus?  4,  193.  Where  do 
animals  get  their  phosphorus? 

S.  Fill  a  test-tube  one-sixth  full  of  manganese 
dioxide  then  add  a  little  hydrochloric  acid. 
Warm  the  tul)e  gently  and  look  for  the  appear- 
ance of  a  yellowish  green  gas,  chlorine. 
Notice  the  odor,  1)ut  do  not  take  too  much  of  it 
into  the  nose. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

9.  Examine  some  metal  sodium  as  it  is  kept 
under  kerosene  in  the  bottle,  cut  off  a  piece  the 
size  of  a  g-rain  of  wheat  and  drop  it  into  a  g-lass 
of  water.  What  follows?  Sodium  combines 
readily  with  the  oxyg-en  of  the  water  and  ox- 
idizes. Save  the  water  in  the  glass  for  experi- 
ment 17. 

10.  Treat  a  small  piece  of  metallic  potassium 
in  the  same  way  that  you  did  the  sodium  in 
experiment  9.  Do  they  act  exactly  alike?  Did 
either  burn  and  explode  and  if  so  why?  Save 
the  water  for  experiment  17. 

11.  Examine  lime  stone,  bone,  clam  or  snail  shells, 
marble  and  "Plaster  of  Paris."  These  all  con- 
tain calcium.  If  the  laboratory  contains  any 
metallic  calcium  it  should  be  examined. 

12.  Hold  a  short  piece  of  magnesium  (ribbon) 
in  a  pair  of  forceps  then  ignite  the  magnesium 
by  holding  it  in  the  flame.  What  is  the  color 
of  the  flame?  What  kind  of  a  substance  is  left 
after  oxidation  has  taken  place?  This  experi- 
ment  furnishes    another    illustration  of  rapid 

oxidation. 

13.  Heat  a  piece  of  charcoal  red  hot  and  then 
hold  it  in  a  bottle  filled  with  air.  After  a  few 
minutes,  remove  the  charcoal  and  insert  a 
lighted  match.  Why  does  it  not  burn?  The 
bottle  contains  carbon  dioxide  gas.  Pour 
a  little  lime  water  into  the  bottle  containing 
the  carbon  dioxide.  Shake.  Result?  This  is 
a  common  test  for  carbon  dioxide. 

14.  Put  some  lime  water  into  a  clean  bottle  and 
breathe  into  it  through  a  glass  tube.     Effect? 


12  INTRODUCTION 

What  is  present  in  your  breath? 

15.  Put  some  small  lumps  of  marble  or  limestone 
into  a  flask.  Add  some  diluted  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  close  the  flask  with  a  cork  fitted  with 
a  bent  glass  tube.  When  the  action  seems 
vigorous,  let  the  gas  escape  into  an  empt}^ 
bottle  until  3'ou  think  it  is  full.  Insert  a  light- 
ed match  into  the  bottle.  Effect?  Pour  in  a 
little  lime  water.  Effect?  What  gas  was  given 
off  from  the  limestone? 

16.  (This  experiment  may  be  made  by  one  pupil 
for  the  class,  or  by  the  teacher).  Into  a  bottle 
fitted  with  a  cork  and  a  delivery  tube  put  a 
strong  solution  of  sugar,  and  then  add  a  little 
yeast.  Let  the  deliver}-  tube  connect  with  a 
bottle  filled  with  water  inverted  in  a  pan  of 
water,  then  set  the  whole  in  a  warm  place.  After 
a  day  or  two  examine  the  gas  that  has  collected. 
Test  with  a  lighted  match,  also  with  lime  water. 
What  gas  was  produced?  The  process  that  pro- 
duced it  is  called  fermentation. 

17.  Half  fill  a  small  test  tube  with  commercial 
aininoiiia  and  heat  gently.  Observe  the 
escaping  gas,  its  color  and  odor.  Moisten  a 
strip  of  red  litmus  paper  and  hold  it  in  the 
escaping  gas.  Effect?  This  is  the  test  for 
alkalis,  and  is  called  an  alkaline  reaction.  The 
gas  that  was  produced  was  aiiiiiioiiia,  which 
is  an  alkali.  Test  with  red  litmus  paper  the 
water  left  from  experiments  9  and  10.     Result? 

18.  Put  a  small  amount  of  common  salt  into  a 
test  tube  and  add  some  sulphuric  acid.  Observe 
the  color  and  odor  of  the  escaping  gas,  hydro- 


INTRODUCTION 


13 


chloric  acid.  Hold  some  moistened  blue  lit- 
mus paper  in  the  g-as.  Effect?  This  is  an 
acid  reaction. 


A  COMPOUND  MICROSCOPK. 


14  INTRODUCTION 


THE  MICROSCOPE. 


A  good  compound  microscope  is  indispensable  for 
thoroug-h  work  in  practical  physiology.  The  stu- 
dent should  have  access  to  one  equall}"  as  good  as  that 
shown  in  the  cut.  It  should  be  fitted  with  two  ob- 
jectives, a  one  inch  and  a  one-fourth  or  one-sixth  inch, 
and  one  or  two  e3^e  pieces.  A  simple  instrument  is  to 
be  preferred  for  beginners  and  the  extra  high  powers 
are  not  desirable,  although  it  is  well  to  have  one 
instrument  fitted  with  high  power  objectives  for  the 
use  of  the  teacher  in  demonstrations. 

The  chief  parts  of  the  microscope  are  the  draw 
tube,  A,  the  eye  piece,  B,  the  objective,  C,  the 
stage,  I),  the  mirror,  E,  the  line  adjustment 
screw,  7^  and  the  diapliragm,  G. 

The  mirror  is  used  to  catch  the  light  from  some 
window  and  to  throw  it  through  the  object,  the  objective 
and  eye  piece  to  the  e^^e.  Before  trying  to  focus  the 
instrument  the  first  thing  to  do,  alwa3'S,  is  to  adjust 
the  mirror. 

Objects  to  be  examined  with  the  compound  micro- 
scope b}^  the  ordinary  methods  must  be  ver}-  thin  so 
that  light  can  be  transmitted  through  them.  They 
are  generally  placed  on  a  clear  glass  slip,  1x3  inches 
in  si7.e,  and  then  covered  by  a  very- thin  piece  of  glass 
known  as  the  cover  glass.  Nearly  all  objects  need  to 
be  mounted  in  water  or  some  other  transparent  me- 
dium to  be  seen  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  liigli  and  low  power  objectives  can 
easily  be  distinguished  from  the  fact  that  the  former 
has  a  very  much  smaller  lens  than  the  latter.  The 
high  power  objective  focuses  much  nearer  the   object 


INTRODUCTION  15 

than  the  low,  is  much  more  difficult  to  focus,  it 
requires  more  lig"ht  and  the  object  does  not  appear 
so  distinct  as  when  under  the  low  power. 

The  diaphrai^m,  as  usually  arrang-ed,  is  a  cir- 
cular brass  plate  containing-  holes  of  various  sizes, 
which  may  be  revolved  under  the  circular  hole  in  the 
stag"e  and  thus  reg^ulate  the  amount  of  lig"ht  that 
is  reflected  throug-h  the  object.  The  more  opaque 
the  object,  g-enerally,  the  greater  the  amount  of  light 
required.  The  hig-h  power  objective  will  require  more 
lig^ht  than  the  low  and  on  dark  and  brig^ht  days  the 
lig-ht  must  be  reg"ulated  to  suit  the  object. 

In  the  instrument  shown  in  the  figure  the  draw 
tube  is  made  to  slide  with  the  hand.  To  focus  upon 
an  object  the  tube  should  be  pushed  down  until  the 
lower  end  of  the  objective  nearly  touches  the  g^lass, 
then,  with  the  eye  looking-  into  the  eyepiece,  the  tube 
should  be  withdrawn,  slowly,  until  the  object  appears 
in  view.  Now  with  the  fine  adjustment  screw  move 
the  tube  until  the  object  is  clearly  in  focus. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

MatkriaLvS.  a  slide  with  the  letter  F  or  some 
other  letter  mounted  on  it,  or  if  this  is  not  at 
hand,  cut  from  a  paper  some  letters  that  can 
easily  be  distinguished  when  inverted;  a  slide 
with  some  wool  fibers  mounted;  a  slide  with 
cotton  fibers;  a  slide  with  two  colors  of  silk 
mounted  so  that  they  cross  each  other;  a  slide 
with  mounted  cats  hairs;  and  a  box  with  plain 
g-lass  slips  and  cover  g-lasses.     (See  pag-e  14.) 


16  INTRODUCTION 

1.  Examine  the  microscope  and  review  its  parts. 
Make  a  roug"h  sketch  of  it  and  name  the  parts. 
Keep  full  notes  and  make  clear  and  accurate 
drawing's  of  everything*  observed. 

2.  Place  the  slide  of  the  letter  F  on  the  stag-e 
of  the  microscope  and  fasten  it  with  the  clips. 
Adjust  the  mirror  with  the  low  power  objective 
in  position,  slide  the  draw  tube  down  until  the 
lower  end  of  the  objective  is  about  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  from  the  object.  Place  the  eye  in 
position  and  slide  the  draw  tube  up  slowly 
until  the  object  is  seen.  Now  with  the  fine  ad- 
justment screw  focus  until  the  letter  appears 
distinct.  Whatis  wrong  with  the  letter?  Have 
you  placed  it  in  the  microscope  wrong-?  Move 
it  a  little  while  looking  into  the  tube.  What 
happens?  How  is  the  letter  inverted?  (In  how 
many  ways?)  What  does  the  microscope  seem 
to  do  to  objects  that  are  placed  under  it? 

3.  Place  a  slide  of  wool  fibers  under  the  micro- 
scope and  focus  carefully  on  it  with  the  low 
power.  Try  with  a  smaller  diaphram.  Are 
the  fibers  cylindrical?     Are  they  smooth? 

4.  Place  the  high  power  objective  in  the  micro- 
scope and  push  it  down  very  near  the  object 
but  do  not  touch  the  cover  glass.  While  looking- 
into  the  tube  of  the  instrument  run  it  up  with 
the  fine  adjustment  screw.  Work  carefully.  You 
will  need  more  light  for  the  high  power.  Why? 
After  the  fibers  are  in  focus  note  the  following": 
Are  they  roug-h?  Can  you  now  account  for  the 
sensation  you  receive  when   you   touch    wool? 


INTRODUCTION  17 

How?     Can  3^011  disting-uish  cells  in  the  libers? 
Draw  two  or  three  fibers. 

5.  Examine  a  slide  of  cotton  fibers,  first  with 
the  low  then  the  hig-h  powder.  Shape  of  the 
fibers?  How  alike  and  how  difi'erent  from 
those  of  wool?     Draw\ 

6.  Examine  the  colored  silk  fibers,  first  with  the 
low  then  the  hig-h  power.  How  alike  and  dif- 
ferent from  wool  and  cotton?  Examine  very 
carefully  and  determine  the  order  in  which  the 
various  colors  are  placed,  (which  is  above  and 
which  below?  Do  this  b}^  focussing,  carefuU}', 
first  on  one  and  then  the  other).  Make  a  draw- 
ing- and  indicate  the  colors  and  order. 

7.  Examine  the  hairs  of  the  cat  or  rabbit.  Com- 
pare with  the  wool  and  the  fibers  of  silk  and 
cotton.  What  is  the  shape  of  the  cat's  hair? 
If  there  are  two  colors  in  the  hair,  how  do  they 
differ? 

8.  Take  a  plain  glass  slip  and  place  on  it  a  few 
fine  fibers  from  your  handkerchief,  dress  or  coat, 
add  a  drop  of  water  and  then  apply,  carefully, 
a  cover  g-lass  and  examine.  Try  to  g-et  both 
wool  and  cotton.  Compare  with  what  you 
have  seen  before. 

9.  Mount  a  piece  of  hair  from  your  head  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  fibers  described  above. 
With  the  hig-h  power,  look  for. the  three  parts: 

a.     An  outer  roug-hish  portion,  the  cuticle. 
h.     The  dark  fibrous  material. 
c.     In    the    center,      the      tube-like      part, 
medulla.     If  air  bubbles  are   pres-. 


18  INTRODUCTION 

etit  in  this  part  of   the  hair,    it   ap- 
pears white. 
Make  drawings  of  the  human  hair. 

10.  Examine  hairs  from  various  animals  and 
make  notes  and  drawings. 

11.  Prepare  permanent  slides  of  some  of  the  fibers 
and  hairs  by  the  following  method:  Place  the 
perfectly  dry  fibers  or  hairs  in  turpentine  or 
clove  oil  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  put  one  or 
two  on  a  glass  slip,  add  a  drop  of  Canada  balsam, 
apply  a  cover  glass,  then  set  aside  in  a  horizon- 
tal position  for  the  balsam  to  harden.  In  ap- 
plying a  cover  glass,  first  touch  one  edge  then 
let  the  other  down  slowly. 

Note.  The  preceding  exercises  are  intended  mainly  for  the 
drill  they  give  in  the  use  of  the  microscope  and  not  especially  for 
the  information  gained^  although  they  may  aid  the  student  in  distin- 
guishing some  of  the  more  common  foreign  objects  which  are  likely 
to  appear  under  the  microscope,  along  with  other  preparations,  in  all 
work  with  the  instrument.  The  glass  slips  and  cover  glasses  must  be 
perfectly  clean  before  they  are  used.  The  same  is  true  of  all  parts 
of  the  microscope.  Remember  never  to  touch  the  lenses  with  the 
fingers  and  if  any  dirt  accumulates  on  them,  remove  it  with  a  soft 
handkerchief  If  the  object  you  are  examining  does  not  appear 
clearly  defined,  look  for  dirt  or  water  on  the  objective  or  eyepiece 
of  your  microscope.  No  satisfactory  work  can  be  done  until  the 
student  can  accurately  and  easily  focus  the  microscope,  so  the  fore- 
going exercises  should  be  repeated,  if  necessary,  until  the  manipula- 
tion becomes  easy. 

THE  CELL. 

Materials.  Cork;  a  razor;  a  bottle  of  iodine 
for  staining  (see  appendix);  leaves  of  the  gera- 
nium and  some  logwood  stain,  such  as  hecma- 
toxylin  or  hcomalum.  In  general  it  will  be 
found  more  satisfactory  to  purchase  this  stain, 
as  well  as  others  mentioned  hereafter,  from 
some  reliable  dealer.  The  quantity  of  the  stains 


INTRODUCTION  19 

used,  is  usually  too  small  to  justify  the  teacher 
in  trying-  to  make  them  up.  Should  the  teacher, 
however,  desire  to  make  them,  formulae  will  be 
found  in  the  appendix.  Collect  several  bottles  of 
pond  water,  with  some  of  the  ooze  from  the  bot- 
tom and  pieces  of  aquatic  plants.  About  two 
days  before  this  work  is  to  be  taken  up  in  the 
laboratory,  prepare  three  bottles  as  follows: 
Partially  fill  two  of  the  bottles  with  water  and 
in  one  drop  a  piece  of  meat.  In  the  other, 
place  some  hay.  Both  bottles  should  be  kept  in 
a  warm  place.  In  the  third  bottle,  put  some 
water,  a  little  flour,  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  sugar,  and  then  add  one-half  of  a  yeast  cake. 
This  third  bottle  may  be  prepared  the  nig-ht 
before  it  is  to  be  used,  but  it  should  be  kept 
warm  during-  the  nig-ht. 

1.  With  a  sharp  knife  or  razor,  shave  off  a  very 
thin  piece  of  cork,  place  it  on  a  g-lass  slip  with 
a  drop  of  water  and  apply  a  cover  g-lass.  Ex- 
amine, first  with  the  low,  then  the  hig-h  power 
and  notice: 

a.     The  rectang-ular  spaces,   cells,  which 

compose  it. 
h.     That  the  spaces  are  empty,  or  that  only 

the  cell  v/all  portion  is  present. 

2.  Tear  a  geranium  leaf  crosswise  so  that  a 
little  of  the  epidermis  from  the  under-side  will 
be  removed.  Mount  this  in  water  with  the  out- 
side up,  then  examine  with  the  low  power  and 
notice: 

a.     The   numerous    cells    with    irregular 
walls. 


20  INTRODUCTION 

h.  Other  smaller  cells,  somewhat  half- 
moon  shaped,  which  are  arrang-ed 
in  pairs  to  form  the  breathing- 
pores  of  the  plant. 

3.  Remove  the  cover  g"lass  from  the  specimen 
just  examined  and  apply  a  drop  of  hccmatoxjlin. 
Allow  the  stain  to  remain  for  five  or  ten  minutes 
then  drain  off,  apply  water  and  ag-ain  the  cover 
glass.  Examine  now  with  the  high  power  and 
notice: 

a.  The  cell  walls,  irregular  in  shape. 

b.  The  shape  of  the  cells  which   form  the 

breathing-pores. 

c.  A  purplish  dot,  the  nucleus,   may  be 

found  in  some  of  the  cells.  The 
nuclei  are  shown  exceptionally 
v/ell  in  the  epidermis  of  the  Wake- 
robin  leaf. 

4.  With  a  dull  knife  or  other  clean  object,  scrape 
a  few  cells  from  the  cheek  on  the  inside  of  the 
mouth.     Mount  without  staining-  and  observe: 


'& 


a.     The  large  flat  cells. 


/;.  The  rather  clear  nucleus. 
Remove  the  cover  glass  and  allow  the  mate- 
rial to  dry  on  the  slide.  The  process  may  be 
hurried  by  gently  warming  over  a  flame.  When 
dry,  appl}'  a  few  drops  of  ha'matox3'lin  stain, 
and  when  it  has  remained  for  five  minutes, 
w^ash  in  water,  apply  a  cover  glass  and  examine. 
The  nucleus  should  appear  distinctly  stained. 
5.  If  specimens  can  be  obtained,  the  aiiKrba 
should  be  examined  here.  This  one-celled  ani- 
mal can  usually  be  found   in    the  summer  time 


INTRODUCTION  21 

on  the  stems  of  aquatic  plants,  in  the  ooze 
at  the  bottom  of  ponds,  lakes  and  rivers,  and 
is  frequently  found  on  clam  shells,  and  on  the 
walls  and  other  objects  of  the  aquarium  where 
clams  are  kept.  Under  the  microscope,  the 
amoeba  may  be  disting-uished  by  the  following- 
characters: 

a.  It  is  almost  transparent. 

b.  It    puts  out    pseudopodia,  or  false 

feet. 

c.  Its  movements  are  very  slow. 

d.  The  granular  central  portion. 

e.  A  more  or  less  clear  outer  portion. 
/.     A  nucleus. 

g\     A  contractile  vesicle.    Notice  that 
the     vesicle     gradually    enlarg^es 
and  then  suddenly  collapses. 
h.     The  many  small  particles  in  the  g-ranu- 
lar  portion,  food  particles. 
Tap  on  the  cover  g-lass  to  see  if  the  amoeba 
is  sensitive.      Make    drawing-s  of  the  amoeba 
showing-  all  of  its  parts.     See  outline  of  the 
cell  for  references  on  the  amoeba. 
6.        Kxamine  drops  of  water  from  the  first  two 
bottles  referred  to  under  materials,  using-  the 
hig-h  power,  and  look  for  very   small  bodies 
that    are    rapidly    moving-    ajDout,    bacteria. 
Some  of  these  may  be  spherical  in  shape,  others 
look   like   straig-ht   rods   and   still   others   like 
curved  rods.    Some  larg-er  forms,  infusorians, 
may  be  found. 

Study  preparations   from  both  bottles  care- 
fully and  make  drawing-s  of  what  you  observe. 


22  INTRODUCTION 

The  bacteria  are  plants,   and  the  infusorians 
animals. 
7.        Kxamine  a  drop  of  yeast  from  the  third  bottle 
prepared.     Notice: 

a.     The  numerous  roundish  bodies,  starch 

grains. 
h.     Between  the  starch  grains,  numerous 
small  bodies,  often  oblong"  in  shape, 
yeast  plants.      Sometimes  these 
yeast  plants  are  budding. 
c.     Apply   a  drop  of   iodine,     which    will 
stain  the  starch  grains  purple,  if 
weak,  and  black  if  strong,  and  the 
yeast  cells  yellowish.       The  yeast 
cells   can   now   be  readily   distin- 
guished. 
Make  drawings  of  the  yeast. 
The  action  of  yeast  on  starch  and  sugar  is  to 
produce  alcohol  and  carbon    dioxide,    hence 
yeast  is  necessary  in  brewing  for  the  alcohol  it 
produces,    and   in   the  bakery   for   the  carbon 
dioxide,  which  causes  the  dough  to  expand  and 
become  light. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES. 


THE  SUPPORTING  TISSUES. 

la.  The  skeleton.     3;  3;  6;  7;  8;  18;  19;  25. 

lb.  Of  what  consist? 

Ic.  Kxo-skeleton.     3,  63. 

Id.  What  it  is?     Illustrations. 
2c.  Endo-skeleton.     3,  63. 
Id.     Consists  of  what? 

le.  Connective  tissues.     2,  18;    3,    100;    11:, 
14;  17,  53;     25,  104;  6,    15;  18,  45. 
If.   Nature  of. 
2f.  Kinds. 

Ig-.  Areolar.     3,  100;  14,  15. 
Ih.  Where  found? 
2h.  Structure. 
3h.  Properties. 
4h.  Physiolog"j. 

5h.   Adipose.     18,  49;  3,  107;  14,  15. 
2g.   White  fibrous.      (See  references  un- 
der le.). 
Ih.  Where  found? 
2h.  Structure. 
3h.  Properties. 
4h.  Physiology. 
3g-.  Yellow  fibrous  or  elastic.   (See  refer- 
ences under  le.). 
Ih.  Where  found? 
2h.  Structure. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES. 

3h.   Properties. 
4h.  Physiology. 
4g-.  Irregular  forms.     3,  103. 

Ih.  Where  found  and  properties? 
3f.   Chemical  composition  of  connective  tis- 
sues.    3,  102. 
4f.  Development     of     connective     tissues. 
18,  48. 
2e.   Cartilag-e.     3,  98;  2,  17;  7;    25;    (>;    5; 
14;  18,  51. 
If.  Nature  of. 

2f.  Structure. 
Ig-.  Cells. 
2^.  Intercellular  substance. 

3f.   Kinds  of.' 
Ig.  Temporar3\ 
2g.  Hyaline. 
3g-.   Cellular. 
4g-.  Fibro-cartilag-e.     3,  104. 

3e.  Bony  skeleton.     See  under  index  of  Nos. 
2,  3,  (>,  7,  8,  15,  18,  ll)and*^r>. 
If.  Axial  skeleton.     2,  20. 
Ig-.   Parts  of. 

Ih.   Vertebral  column, 
li.  Number  of  bones. 
2i.   Anatomy   of  a  typical   vertebra. 

2,  23;  3,  66;  25,  17. 
3i.    Divisions  of. 

Ij.  Cervical.     3,  68;  18,  147. 
Ik.  Number  of  bones. 
2k.   IIov^    disting-uished     from 

other  vertebra*. 
3k.    Atlas  and  axis.     2^  25;    18, 
H8. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  25 

11.  Structure  and  ph3^siolog-y. 

2j.   Dorsal. 
Ik.  Number. 

2k.  Ivocation    and    how    distin- 
g-uished. 

3j.  Lumbar. 
Ik.   Number. 

2k.  Location    and    how    distin- 
g-uished. 

4j.   Sacrum. 

Ik.  Divisions  of. 

2k.  Wh}^  are  the  vertebrae  here 
*  united. 

5j.  Coccyx. 

Ik.  How  explained? 
2i.   Ph3'siolog'y  of  the  spinal  column. 

2,  34;  3,  71. 

Ij.  Curves  in. 

Ik.  Advantages. 
2j.  Flexibility.     Cause. 
2h.  Ribs, 
li.      Shape. 
2i.  Total  number. 
3i.   The  usual  division  into  groups. 

3,  72;  6,  31. 

Ij.   Reasons  for  each  division. 

4i,  Costal  cartilages. 
3h.   Sternum. 

li.   Structure. 

2i.  Function. 
4h.  The  skull. 

li.  The  cranium. 


2B  SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

Ij.  Number  and  location  of   each 

bone. 
2j.  Fontanelles.     1. 
3j.  Sutures.     1. 
2i.  Face. 

Ij.  Number  and   location   of  each 
bone. 
3i.  Hyoid  bone. 
Ij.   Its  use. 
2f.  Appendicular  skeleton.     3,  77. 
Ig".   Pectoral  arch. 
Ih.   Scapula. 

li.   Location,  shape,  articulations. 
2h.  Clavicle. 

li.  Location,  shape,  articulations. 
2i.  Comparative  anatomy  of.       *<J(>, 
71-73;  29,  107-109. 
3h.  Humerus. 

li.   Location,  shape,  articulations. 
4h.  Ulna  and  radius. 

li.   Location,   shapes,    articulations, 
2i.  Physiology  of. 
5h.   Carpal  bones. 

li.   Location,  number,  names.       18, 

273. 
2i.   Physiology. 
6h.   Metacarpal  bones. 

li.   Location,  number. 
7h.   Phalanges. 

li.   Location  number. 
2g.  Pelvic  arch  or  girdle. 
Ih.   Innominate  bones, 
li.   Number,  shape,  articulations. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  37 

2i.  Acetabulum. 

3i.  Thyroid  foramen.     3,  79. 

4i.  Development  of.     18,  280. 

5i.   Physiolog'y. 
21i.  Femur. 

li.   Description;  articulations. 
3h.  Tibia  and  fibula. 

li.  Shapes,  articulations. 
4h.   Patella. 

li.  Location,  description. 

2i.  Development  of.     18,294. 

3i.  Physiolog'y. 
5h.  Tarsal  bones. 

li.  Number,  names.     18,  301. 

2i.  Development   of  the  astragalus. 
3,  81. 

3i.  Physiolog'y  of. 
6h.   Metatarsal. 

li.  Number,  location. 
7h.  Phalang'es. 

li.  Number. 

2i.   Physiolog-y. 

3i.  How     illustrate     specialization? 
26,  84. 
8h.  Comparative  anatomy  of  bones  of 
the  lower  limbs.     15. 
3g-.  Comparison  of  bones  of  upper  and 
lower  limbs.     2,  29;  3,  80. 
Ih.   Likenesses. 

li.  Compare  each  set  of  bones  and 
state  likenesses. 
2h.   Differences. 

li.  The  patella. 


•28  SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

2i.  Movements  of  the  ulna   and   the 
radius  compared  with  that  of 
the  tibia  and  fibuhi. 
3i.  The  hand  and  foot. 
4g-.   Some   peculiarities    of    the     human 
skeleton. 
Ih.   The  balancing-  of  the  skull. 
2h.   The  spinal  column. 
3h.   The  pelvis. 

4h.   Leng-th  of  the  lower  limbs.    Effect? 
5h.  Arched  instep.     Value? 
3f.   Structure  of  bone. 

Ig-.  Gross  structure.     3,36;  3,  85;  25,  88; 
14,  24;  18,54. 
:  Ih.  Arrang-ements  of  bones  in  g-roups 

on  basis  of  shape. 
2h.  Covering-  of  bones. 

li.   At  the  ends  in  long-  bones. 
2i.  Other  portions  of  the  bone. 
3i.  Nature  and  use  of  this  covering". 
3h.  Enlarg-ements  at  the  ends  in  long- 
bones.     Use? 
4h.  Name  of  the  middle   portion   of  a 

long-  bone. 
5h.  Internal  structure  of  a  long-  bone, 
li.  Name  of  the  cavity. 
Ij.   With  what  filled? 
Ik.  Use  of  the  marrow. 
2i.  Inside  structure  of  the  enlarg-cd 
ends. 
Ij.   With  what  filled? 
3i.  What  reason  for  bones  being  hol- 
low? 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  2^* 

2g.  Minute  structure  of  bone.   2,40;  3,87; 
25,  88;  14,  27;  18,  56;  30,  174. 
Ih.   Haversian  canals. 

li.  Location,  size,  use. 
2h.  Lamellae. 

li.  Location  and  arrang^ement. 
3h.     Lacunae. 

li.  Location,  use. 
2i.  Bone  corpuscles. 
4h.  Canaliculi. 
li.   Location,  use. 
4f.   Chemical  composition  of  bone.       2,  42; 
14,  24;  18,  58. 
Ig*.  Org"anic  matter. 

Ih.  Nature  of. 
2g".  Inorg-anic  matter. 

Ih.  Nature  of. 
3g".  Chemical  composition  as  illustrated, 
in  g-eneral,   by  the  manufacture 
of  g-elatine,  bone  black,  bone  ash 
phosphorus  and  fertilizers.     20. 
5f.  Development  of  bone.     25,  93;  18,  59. 
6f.  Hygiene  of  bones.     6,  47-52;  2,  43. 
Ig".  In  reference  to  clothing. 
2g-.  In  reference  to  the  habits  of  the  per- 
son. 
3g-.  Fractures. 
7f.   Articulations.     2,  46;  3,  91;  18,  315. 
Ig-.   Definition. 
2g.  Classes  as  to  movement.. 
Ih.   No  movement  vsutures). 
2h.  Little  movement  (spinal  column). 
3h.   Free  movement. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

li.  Joints. 
Ij.  Need  of. 

2].  Study  of  the  hip  joint.       2,  47; 
li,  92. 
Ik.  Parts. 
11.  Lig"aments  (two  kinds). 
21.  The  ball. 

31.  The  socket  (acetabulum^. 
41.  Articular  cartilages. 
51.  Synovial  membrane. 
61.  Synovial  fluid. 
Im.  Physiology  of. 
2k.  Physiology  of. 

11.  Effect  of  air  pressure  on  the 

joint.     3,  92. 
21.  Movements. 

Im.  Flexed,    extended,    ab- 
ducted,   adducted,    cir- 
cumducted, rotated. 
3j.   Locate  the  other  ball  and  soc- 
ket joints  of  the  body. 
4j.  Hinge  joints. 

Ik.   Describe  and  compare  with 

ball  and  socket  joints. 
2k.  Locate  several  of  these. 
5j.  Pivot  joints. 

Ik.  Describe  and  locate. 
6j.   Gliding  joints. 

Ik.  Describe  and  locate. 
7j.  Hygiene  of  joints. 
Ik.   Dislocation. 
2k.   Sprain. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  31 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


CONNECTIVE  TISSUES. 

MATERIAI.S.  Get  from  the  butcHer  several 
inelastic  tendons,  which  are  usually  found  near 
joints;  and  a  yellow  elastic  lig-ament,  which  is 
found  in  the  back  of  the  neck  of  the  cow  or 
sheep.  Have  ready  also  a  sharp  razor;  Far- 
rant's  solution;  picro-carmine;  a  one  per  cent, 
solution  of  g^lacial  acetic  acid;  alcohol  and 
hcematoxylin.  Place  pieces  of  both  kinds  of 
connective  tissue  in  50  per  cent,  alcohol  for  24 
hours  then  70  per  cent,  alcohol  and  let  them 
remain  in  the  latter  until  ready  for  use.  The 
tissues  will  be  hardened  by  the  alcohol  so  that 
they  can  be  cut  into  sections  with  the  razor. 

1.  White  fibrous  ok  inelastic  tissue.  Pull 
a  tendon  to  see  whether  or  not  it  will   stretch. 

2.  Tear  a  fine  strip  from  a  tendon  and  cut  off 
a  short  piece,  place  it  on  a  glass  slip  with  a 
drop  of  water,  then  with  two  needles  or  pins 
tease  the  fibers  apart  as  much  as  possible.  Ap- 
ply a  cover  g^lass  and  examine  with  low  and 
hig-h  powers.  Notice  the  fine  fibers  that  make 
up  the  tissue.     Draw. 

3.  With  a  sharp  razor  cut  thin  cross  sections  of 
a  hardened  tendon  (see  appendix  for  methods  of 
cutting-),  place  these  in  picro-carmine  until  well 
stained,  then  mount  them  directly  in  Farrant's 
solution,  without  washing.     Notice: 


32  SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

a.  The  outer   covering-   or   sheath,   which 

sends    branches      in     between    the 
bundles  of  fibers. 

b.  The  spaces  between  the  bundles,  some- 

what   star-shaped  and  dark  in  ap- 
pearance if  they  contain  air. 

c.  The  cut  ends  of  the  fibers. 

4.  Cut  long-itudinal  sections  of  the  hardened 
tendon  and  stain  them  in  hcematoxylin,  mount 
in  water  and  observe: 

a.  The  long-itudinally  arrang^ed  fibers. 

b.  Between  the   fibers,    rows   of   elongated 

tendon  cells,  or  rather  the  nuclei 
of  tendon  cells. 

5.  In  connective  tissue,  cartilag-e  and  bone,  the 
chief  function  of  the  cells  is  to  build  up  a  secon- 
dary substance  called,  in  the  cartilag-e,  the 
matrix  or  intercellular  substance.  After 
this  is  done  the  cell  becomes  rather  insignifi- 
cant. This  fact  explains  why  the  cell  structure 
is  not  more  definite  in  connective  tissue. 

6.  Boil  for  some  time  a  few  bundles  of  white 
fibrous  connective  tissue.  What  effect?  Can 
you  draw  any  conclusion  from  this  experiment 
as  to  wh}^  we  cook  meat? 

1.  The  YELLOW  FIBROUS  OR  ELASTIC  TISSUE.  Take 
a  piece  of  the  ligament  found  in  the  neck  of  the 
cow  and  pull  it  with  the  fingers.  Describe  its 
action.     Compare  with  the  white  fibrous  tissue. 

2.  Tear  as  small  a  strip  as  possible  of  the  tissue 
then  tease  it  on  a  glass  slip  and  mount  in 
water.     Notice: 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  33 

a.  The  shape  and  size  of  the  fibers  as  com- 
pared with  white  fibrous  tissue. 

/;.  Look  carefully  to  see  if  any  of  the 
fibers  branch. 

c.  Observe  the  curled  ends  of  some  of  the 

fibers. 

d.  Put  a  drop  of  acetic  acid  on  the  slide 

and  allow  it  to  run  under  the  cover. 
Notice  that  the  fibers  are  not  affect- 
ed and  no  nuclei  are  made  visible 
as  in  the  white  fibrous  tissue. 

3.  Cut  cross  sections,  stain  them  in  picro-car- 
mine,  mount  in  Farrant's  solution  and  notice: 

a.  The  elastic  fibers,  stained  yellow. 

b.  The  connective  tissue  which  binds 

the  yellow  fibers  tog-ether,  stained 
red. 

c.  The  ends  of  the  fibers.     Shape? 

4.  Make  a  longitudinal  section,  stain  with  picro- 
carmine  and  notice  the  fibers  and  connective 
tissue.     Draw. 

5.  Boil  some  of  the  yellow  elastic  tissue  the 
same  length  of  time  you  did  the  white  fibrous. 
Effect? 

CARTILAGE. 

Materials.  Get  a  joint  from  the  leg-  of  a 
calf  and  have  ready  some  heematoxylin,  and  a 
one  per  cent,  solution  of  silver  nitrate. 
1.  Hyaline  cartilage.  With  a  sharp  razor 
make  some  thin  sections  of  the  cartilag-e  found 
on  the  -end  of  the  fresh  joint.  Make  the  sections 
in  different  directions.  Mount  a  section  in  nor- 
mal salt  solution  and  observe: 


B4  SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

a.     The  cartilage  cells,  often  in  pairs. 

0.  The  substance  between  the  cells,  the 
matrix  or  intercellular  sub- 
stance. 

c.  Are  the  cells  evenly  distributed  through- 
out the  entire  section?  If  not  where 
are  they  most  numerous? 

2.  Remove  the  cover  glass  from  the  section  just 
examined  and  apply  a  drop  of  hcematoxylin. 
Allow  the  stain  to  remain  for  five  minutes  then 
wash  the  section  in  water  and  replace  the  cover 
glass.     Notice  the  stained  cells. 

3.  Take  a  fresh  section  and  put  it  in  silver 
nitrate  solution  for  five  minutes,  wash  in  water, 
then  let  it  stand  in  water  in  the  sunlight  or 
bright  day  light  until  it  turns  brown.  Mount 
and  examine.  Notice  that  the  matrix  has 
been  stained  brown  by  the  silver. 

4.  Sections  described  under  paragraphs  2  and  3 
may  be  preserved  permanently  if  mounted  in 
glycerine  or  glycerine  jelly.  See  appendix  for 
methods. 

BONES. 

Materials.  A  dry  bone;  a  fresh  long  bone; 
a  file;  a  fine  whetstone,  or  better  two  such 
stones;  a  saw;  some  hydrochloric  acid  and  some 
dr}^  Canada  balsam. 
1.  Gross  STRUCTURE.  Examine  any  long  dry  bone, 
such  as  the  human  femur  or  humerus  or  a  simi- 
lar bone  from  some  domestic  animal,  for  the 
following  points: 

a.     The  enlarged  ends,  the  articular  ex- 
treniities. 


^  SUPPORTING  TISSUES  35 

h.     The  smaller  central  portion,  the  shaft. 

c.  Notice  the  smooth  surfaces  on  the 

enlarged  ends.     What  use? 

d.  Notice  the  rough  places  on  the  shaft 

and  enlarged  ends.     What  use  are 
they? 

e.  Look  for  small   circular  holes  en- 

tering- the  bone.     What  are  they? 

2.  If  a  prepared  specimen  is  not  at  hand,  saw  a 
long  dry  bone  in  two  lengthwise  and  notice: 

a.  The  thickness  of  the  walls  of  the 
shaft.  Compare  with  the  walls  of 
the  articular  extremities. 

h.  Notice  the  cavity  in  the  shaft,  medul- 
lary cavity.  How  far  does  it 
extend  into  the  ends? 

c.  What  takes  the  place  of  the  cavity  in  the 
ends  of  the  bones? 

3.  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  internal  struc- 
ture of  the  sawed  bone. 

4.  Examine  the  outside  of  a  fresh  bone.  How 
do  the  articular  surfaces  differ  from  those  of 
the  dried  bone?  Look  for  the  rough  places 
mentioned  under  the  gross  structure  of  the  dried 
bone.  Saw  open  the  fresh  bone  in  the  same 
manner  that  you  did  the  dried  one. 

a.  Look  for  the  medullary  cavity.  What 
does  it  contain?  Of  what  is  the 
substance  composed?  What  color 
is  it? 

h.  What  do  you  find  in  the  ends?  What 
color?  How  does  it  differ  from  the 
contents  of  the  shaft? 


86  SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

c.     Compare  the  inside  of  a  fresh  bone  with 
that  of  the  dried  one. 


1.  Minute  structure.  In  order  to  examine  the 
minute  structure  of  a  bone  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  prepared  thin  section.  It  is  better  to 
have  tw^o,  one  made  leng-thwise  of  the  bone  and 
one  crosswise.  Such  sections  may  be  prepared 
in  the  following-  manner;  Saw^  as  thin  a  slice 
as  possible,  then  rub  it  on  a  file  until  it  is  quite 
thin,  much  thinner  than  you  will  at  first  think 
it  should  be,  then  rub  it  on  a  very  fine  whet- 
stone with  water,  or  better  between  two  such 
stones,  until  it  is  so  thin  that  light  will  pass 
throug-h  it. 

Try  f  requentl}'  under  the  microscope  and  con- 
tinue g-rinding-  until  all  the  parts  can  be  made 
out.  After  the  g-rinding"  has  g^one  far  enoug-h, 
allow  the  section  to  dry,  then  place  it  on  ag-lass 
slip  and  cover  with  a  cover  glass.  Run  cement 
around  the  cover  glass  and  the  section  is 
finished.  The  section  may,  however,  be  moun- 
ted in  water  and  studied.  A  better  way  to 
mount  it  permanently  is  to  allow  it  to  dr}^ 
thoroughly  then  place  on  a  glass  slip  a  small 
lump  of  dry  Canada  balsam  and  warm  it  gently 
until  it  melts.  While  warm  place  the  bone  sec- 
tion in  the  balsam,  apply  the  cover  glass,  then 
cool  the  slide  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  cool- 
ing must  be  rapid  in  order  to  prevent  the  bal- 
sam from  penetrating  the  section,  for  in  so  do- 
ing the  air  is  driven  out  and  the  section  becomes 
too  transparant  to  show  the  structure. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  37 

Since  the  preparation  of  bone  sections   is   a 

long-,  tedious  process,  not  everyone  will  care  to 

do  it  but  most  schools  possessing*  a  compound 

microscope  will  have  prepared  sections  at  hand. 

2.        Under  the  low  power  notice: 

a.  If  a  long-itudinal  section,  some  opening's 

running-  leng-thwise,  the  Haver- 
sian canals.  If  a  cross  section 
is  examined  the  ends  of  these 
canals  will  be  seen. 

b.  All  throug-h  the  bone  and  in  concentric 

circles  around  the  cross  sectioned 
Haversian  canals,  notice  the  black 
spots,  the  lacunae. 

2.  Under  the  hig-h  power  (500  diameters)  notice: 

a.  In  a  cross  section  the  concentric  layers 
of  long-  platevS  surrounding-  an  Ha- 
versian canal,  the  lamellse. 

h.  Where,  with  reference  to  the  lamellae, 
are  the  lacunae  located? 

c.  A   number  of  fine  lines,  tubes,  running- 

out  from  one  lacuna  to  another, 
the  canalicull. 

d.  Look   for   canaliculi   running-  into  the 

Haversian  canals.  What  is  the 
use  of  the  canaliculi?  What  is 
the  use  of  the  lacunae? 

3.  Make  a  careful  drawing-  of  some  part  of  the 
section  showing-  all  the  minute  structure  of  bone. 


1.  Chemical  Composition.  Take  a  small  bone 
such  as  the  tibia  of  a  chicken  (drum  .stick)  or 
the  rib  of  a  sheep,  and  find  a  tall  wide  necked 


38  SUPPORTING  TISSUES 

bottle  into  which  the  bone  can  be  placed.  Fill 
the  bottle  with  a  solution  composed  of  one  part 
hydrochloric  acid  and  five  parts  water.  After 
cleaning*  the  bone  of  all  fat  or  flesh,  place  it  in 
the  solution  and  allow  it  to  remain  over  night. 
If  on  examination  the  next  morning  the  bone  is 
not  entirely  soft,  allow  it  to  remain  longer. 
How  do  you  explain  the  change? 

2.  Place  a  piece  of  limestone  or  marble  half  the 
size  of  a  grain  of  corn  in  the  solution  and 
notice  what  takes  place.  Compare  with  the 
action  on  the  bone. 

3.  Place  a  bone  in  the  fire  and  allow  it  to  remain 
until  completely  burned.  What  is  left?  Try 
a  piece  of  the  ash  in  the  acid  solution.  What 
conclusion  do  you  reach  concerning  the  chemi- 
cal composition  of  bone? 

JOINTS. 

Materials.  Get  from  the  butcher  a  few 
joints  of  different  kinds  from  any  small  animal 
so  that  they  will  be  convenient  to  handle. 

1.  Take  up  one  of  the  joints  and  move  its  parts. 

a.     In  how  many  directions  can  it  be  moved? 
/;.     Do  any  of  the  joints  move  like  a  hinge? 

2.  Examine  carefully  the  tissues  surrounding 
one  of  the  joints. 

a.  In  what  directions  do  these  tissues  run? 
Make  a  drawing  showing  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  ligaments, 
after  the  fat  has  been  removed. 

3.  With  a  sharp  knife  carefully  trim  away  this 
outer  covering,  capsular  lij»aiiieiits,  of  the 
joint. 


SUPPORTING  TISSUES  39 

a.     Ivookfor  any  fluid,  the  synovial  flviitl, 

that  may  escape.  How  does  this 
fluid  feel  when  rubbed  between 
the  fing-ers?  Its  use? 
h.  Pull  the  joint  apart  and  notice  the 
articular  cartilages.  Did  the 
joint  contain  a  round  ligament? 
Such  lig-aments  are  found  in  some 
joints,  as  the  hip  joint  in  the 
human  body. 


MOTOR  TISSUES. 


MOTOR  TISSUES. 

la.   Motion  in  plants  and  animals.     3,  119. 

2a.  General  characteristics  of  motor  tissue.     3,  119; 

17,  469;  6,  57;  5,  9;  25,  112. 
3a.  Kinds  of  motor  tissues. 

lb.  Amoeboid  cells.      2,    151;  3,   110;  9,   170;   25, 
62;  12,  157;  11,  I,  168. 
Ic.  Undifferentiated  nature  of. 
2b.   Ciliated  cells.     3,  110;  9,  170;  17,  46;  12,  154; 
11,1,  164.     13,  II,  559. 
Ic.  Structure.     30,  135-140. 
2c.  Location. 
3c.   Physiology  of. 
3b.   Muscles.     2,  52;  3,  112;   0,  57-78;   5,  9-28;   5, 
371-381;  8,  33-53;  23,  355-461. 
Ic.   Number  in  the  body.     2,  52. 
2c.   Variation  in  size  and  leng-th. 
3c.  Uses  of  muscles. 
1(1.  Primary.     2,  52. 
2d.  Secondary. 
4c.  Classes  as  to  structure  and  location. 
Id.   Skeletal  muscles  (striped).     3,  113. 
le.  Parts  of  a  typical  one.     2,  52;  3,  112. 
If.   Tendons. 
2f.  Body  or  belly. 
2e.  Orig-in  and  insertion.     2,  55;  3,  115. 
3e.  Forms  as  to  shape.     2,  55;  3,   116. 
If.  Biceps. 
2f.  Triceps. 


MOTOR  TISSUES  41 

3f.  Penniform. 
4f.  Bipenniform. 
5f.  Dig-astric. 
6f.  Polyg"astric. 
4e.  Arrang"ement  of  muscles  in  pairs.     2,  56. 
5e.  Gross  structure  of  striped  muscles.     2, 
57;  3,  117.     11,  I,  86.      13,  II,  562. 
If.  Coveritig-. 

2f-   Division  of  into  fasciculi. 
3f.  Further  division  of  the  fasciculi.      3, 
117. 
6e.  Histolog"y  of  striped  muscles.      2,  58;   3, 
117;  25,  114;   11,  I,  90;   13,  II,  562. 
If.  The  muscle  fiber.     3,  117-122;  25,  119; 
30,  193. 
2d.  Plain  muscular  tissue.     2,  59;  25,  121;  12, 
149.     11,  I,  158;  13,  II,  571. 
le.  Where  found? 
2e.  Structure. 

If.  Compare  with  striped  muscle. 
3d.  Cardiac  or  heart  muscle.     2,  61;  3,  123;  25, 
123.     13,  II,  571. 
5c.  Chemical  composition.       2,   61;   3,   123;   25, 
123;  17,  474;  12,  104;  11,  I,  97;   13,  II, 
575. 
Id.   Difficulties  in  determining-. 
2d.  Chief  constituents. 
3d.  Beef  teas  and  extracts.     3,  125. 
6c.  Physiolog*y  of  muscles. 

Id.  Properties  of  muscular  tissue.     17,  473. 
le.  Contractility.     3,  127;  13,  II,  575. 
If.  Effect  of  differentiation. 
2f.  Chang^e  of  form  but  not  quantit3^ 


42  MOTOR  TISSUES 

2e.  Irritability.     3,  128;  10,  38;  13,  II,  585. 
If.  Stimuli.'     3,  128;  25,  US;  17,  481;  12, 
111. 
Ig-.  Nervous  impulse. 
2g.  Electric.     10,  68. 
3g-.  Heat.     10,  66. 
4g-.   Chemical. 
5g.  Mechanical. 

6g-.  How  show  that  these  do  not  simply 
act  on  the  nerves?     3,  130. 
2f.  Theory  of  "vital   spirits"   of  the  older 
physiologists.     3,  130. 
2d.   A  simple  muscular   contraction.       3,    130; 
25,  126;  1-1,  41;  17,  490;  \2,   82;   11, 
I,  69. 
3d.  Physiological  tetanus.     3,  133;  25,  131. 

le.  Effect  of  continuous  shock?     3,   134. 
4d.  What  is  rigor    mortis?       3,    123-457;   25, 

134;  17,  502. 
5d.   Source  of  muscular  energy.   3,  140;  25,135. 
6d.   Generalphysiology  of  muscles.   2,64;  3,144. 
7d.   Special  ph3'siolog'y  of  muscles. 
8d.  Levers.     2,  64;  3,'  145;  25,  138;  17,  505. 
le.   First  class  or  order. 

If.  Explain  and  give  illustration  from  the 
body. 
2e.   Second  class,  with  illustration. 
3e.   Third  class,  with  illustration. 
4e.   Advantages  and   disadvantages  under 
which  muscles  work. 
If.  Muscular  work,  in  general.     3,  148. 
9d.   Pulleys.     2,  67. 
lOd.  Posture  of  the  body  and  how  kept.     2,  67; 


MOTOR  TISSUES  43 

17,  506. 
lid.  Locomotion. 

le.  Walking-.     2,  69;  17,  510. 
2e.  Running-.     2,  71;  17,  510. 
3e.  Leaping-,     3,  153. 
*)  12d.  General  physiology   of  muscle  and  nerve. 
10,  32-152;  14,  40;  1*^,  73;  11,  I,  57. 

7c.  Blood  vessels  of  muscles.     14,    39;    25,   131; 

13,  II,  567. 
8c.  Hyg-iene  of  muscles.     2,  72;  25,  141;  6,  78-96. 

Id.  Necessity  of. 

2d.  Varieties  of  exercise. 

3d.  The  g-ymnasium. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


AMOEBOID  CELLS. 

1.  Draw  a  drop  of  blood  from  the  little  finger 
near  the  root  of  the  nail  by  inserting-  the  point 
of  a  needle  under  the  skin.  Place  the  drop  on 
a  g-lass  slip  which  has  been  warmed  to  about 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  dilute  with  a  little 
normal  salt  solution  (six  parts  of  salt  to  one 
thousand  of  water),  apply  a  cover  g-lass  and 
look  for  movement  in  the  white  corpuscles. 

2.  Sketch  two  or  three  of  the  corpuscles  in  dif- 
ferent positions. 

3.  What  physiolog-ical  properties  do  the  white 


*)  A  full  discussion  of  this  topic  can  be  undertaken  only  with 
advanced  classes.  It  may  be  desirable  to  omit  it  until  after  the 
study  of  the  nervous  system. 


44  MOTOR  TISSUES 

corpuscles  seem  to  possess  that  they  may  move 
thus? 

Note,  The  success  cf  these  exercises  on  amoeboid  cells  depends 
upon  the  temperature  at  which  the  preparation  is  kept,  and  upon 
the  power  of  the  microscope.  The  blood  should  be  kept  at  about 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  and  the  microscope  should  magnify  at 
least  500  diameters.  The  temperature  of  the  preparation  may  be 
easily  regulated  by  having  at  hand  a  strip  of  sheet  copper  about  one 
inch  wide  and  a  foot  long.  One  end  of  the  strip  should  be  placed 
on  the  glass  slip  near  the  cover  glass,  after  the  slide  has  b«en  fixed 
in  the  microscope,  and  the  other  end  should  be  supported  by  some 
object  so  that  it  will  be  level.  Place  a  spirit  lamp  or  other  heat 
under  the  strip  and  move  it  about  until  you  find  that  the  blood  is 
being  nicely  warmed.  Any  desired  temperature  may  thus  be 
obtained. 

CILIATED  CELLS. 

Materials.  A  frog*;  a  piece  of  wire;  normal 
salt  solution;  some  sweet  oil;  a  clam  and  some 
one-tenth  per  cent,  osmic  acid. 

1.  Kill  the  frog-  by  severing"  the  spinal  cord  just 
back  of  the  head,  then  probe  the  brain  to  de- 
stroy it.  Remove  the  frog's  lower  jaw  with  a 
pair  of  scissors,  cutting-  well  back  so  as  to  ex- 
pose the  pharynx  and  oesophagus.  Pin  the 
frog-  on  a  board  so  that  the  cut  surface  will 
face  upwards,  wash  the  mucus  from  the  roof 
of  the  mouth  with  water  then  drop  some  pieces 
of  powdered  cork  on  the  hard  palate  between 
the  two  eyes.  Notice  that  the  pieces  of  cork 
travel  slowly  towards  the  stomach. 

2.  Scrape  a  little  of  the  mucous  coat  from  one 
side  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  of  the  frog-,  tease 
this  in  normal  salt  solution  on  a  g-lass  slip, 
apply  a  cover  g-lass  and  look  for  ciliated  cells. 


MOTOR  TISSUES  45 

a.     Can  you  see  the  cilia? 

'b.  What  effect  have  they  on  the  blood  cor- 
puscles and  other  loose  cells? 

c.  What  peculiar  movement  of  the  cilia 
causes  the  floating-  matter  to  move 
in  one  direction  only? 

■  d.  Put  some  oil  around  the  edg-e  of  the 
cover  g"lass  to  prevent  evaporation, 
and  set  the  slide  aside  for  a  time. 
Kxamine  occasionally  to  see  how 
long-  the  cilia  will  live.  A  better 
idea  can  be  had  concerning-  them 
after  they  beg-in  to  move  slow^er. 

2.  Open  the  clam  and  find  the  broad  membran- 
ous portion,  the  gills.  (If  you  are  not  sure  of 
these,  place  the  opened  clam  in  water  and  the 
g-ills  will  be  seen  to  float  up).  Cut  out  a  small 
portion  of  a  g-ill  and  mount  it  in  water  and  look 
for  cilia. 

a.  How  do  they  compare  with  those  of  the 

frog-? 

b.  Study  ag-ain  the  manner  of  movement. 

3.  Take  the  frog-  used  in  the  above  experiment 
and* on  the  portion  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth  not 
scraped  let  fall  two  or  three  drops  of  osmic  acid. 
Place  the  frog-  on  its  back  under  a  tumbler  or 
g-lass  jar,  where  it  should  remain  for  half  an 
hour  or  long-er,  then  let  water  run  g-ently  over 
the  blackened  portion  to  remove  the  acid. 
Scrape  the  blackened  portion  gently  and  mount 
some  of  the  cells  in  dilute  g-lycerine.  Be  sure 
that  the  cells  are  well  separated  before  appl}- 
ing-  the  cover  g-lass.     This  can  easily  be  done 


46  MOTOR  TISSUES 

by  using"  two  needles. 

a.     What  is  the  shape  of  the  cells? 

h.  Look  for  the  cilia.  Are  they  in  a  row 
around  the  edge  of  the  cell  or  are 
they  spread  over  its  entire  surface? 

c.  Compare  the  length  of  the  cilia  with 

the  length  of  the  cell. 

d.  Draw  cells  in  various  positions. 

e.  Preserve  the  section   permanently   by 

running  cement   around   the  edge 
of  the  cover  glass. 
STRIATED  MUSCLE. 

Materials.  Get  from  the  butcher  a  com- 
plete long  muscle  with  the  tendons  attached; 
the  frog  used  in  the  study  of  ciliated  cells,  if 
the  muscle  study  is  taken  up  in  a  short  time 
after  the  ciliated  cell  study,  otherwise  a  fresh 
frog  should  be  killed.  Muscle  changes  in  a  short 
time  after  death.  Have  ready  some  glycerine; 
borax  carmine;  a  grashopper  or  beetle,  needles 
and,  if  possible,  a  microtome  and  paraf&n  im- 
bedding outfit. 

1.       Gross  Structure.      In  the  long  muscle  with 
attached  tendons  notice: 

a.  Is  there  any  distinct  point  where  muscle 

leaves  off  and  tendon  begins? 

b.  Try  to  prove  for  yourself  that  the  ten- 

dons really  extend  tliroiigli  the 
muscle,  forming  many  little  cylin- 
drical tubes  in  which  the  real  mus- 
cular tissue  lies. 

c.  Look  for  a  covering  over  the  muscle, 


MOTOR  TISSUES  47 

perimysium.  With  forceps  strip 
some  of  it  off. 

2.  Cut  the  muscle  in  two  crosswise. 

a.  Look  for  white  connective  tissue  ex- 
tending" throug"h  the  muscle. 

h.  Notice  that  the  muscle  is  divided  into 
rather  larg^e  bundles  each  sur- 
rounded by  connective  tissue. 

c.  Find  a  division  of  the  larg-e   bundles 

into  smaller  bundles,  fasciculi. 
Have  you  seen  these  fasciculi  in 
cooked  meats? 

d.  Notice  the  fat  between  the  bundles. 

3.  Make  a  long-itudinal  cut  through  the  muscle 
and  notice  the  points  indicated  under  the  cross 
section. 

4.  Make  drawing's  of  cross  and  long^itudinal  sec- 
tions and  indicate  by  colors  or  shading-  the  dif- 
ferent parts. 

5.  Kxamine  boiled  and  roast  beef  the  first  time 
it  appears  on  the  dinner  table. 


1.  Minute  Structure.  Remove  the  skin  from 
one  of  the  legs  of  the  frog  used  above,  and 
with  forceps  strip  off  the  white  connective  tis- 
sue, perimysium.  Take  hold  of  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  muscle  and  strip  it  down  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  and  at  once  place  it  on  a  glass  slip 
with  a  little  normal  salt  solution.  With  nee- 
dles seperate  the  fibers  as  much  as  possible,  then 
apply  the  cover  glass. 

a.     Are  the  fibers  all  of  the  same  size? 

h.     Look     for    the     alternate      dark     and 


48  MOTOR  TISSUES 

light  stripes  across  the  muscle. 
This  appearance  g-ives  the  name 
striped  muscle. 

c.  Look  for  the  broken  places  in  the  fibers. 
Can  YOU  distinguish  an  almost 
transparent  sheath  which  covers 
the  fiber,  the  sarcoleiiiiiia? 

2.  Allow  the  preparation  to  stand  for  twenty  or 
thirty  minutes,  then  examine  again.  In  the 
mean  time,  add  a  little  salt  solution  to  keep  the 
muscle  from  dr3'ing.  What  change  has  taken 
place? 

3.  Remove  the  hard  shell  from  the  large  part  of 
the  leg  of  a  grasshopper,  or  better,  a  water 
beetle,  tear  out  a  little  of  the  muscle,  tease  it 
out  in  salt  solution,  as  before,  and  examine  for 
striated  muscle.  Compare  it  with  that  of  the 
frog.     Try  muscles  from  other  animals. 

4.  Make  accurate  drawings  showing  the  minute 
structure  of  muscle. 

5.  If  it  is  desired  to  make  permanent  slides  of 
striped  muscular  fibers,  place  some  muscle 
that  has  been  hardened  in  alcohol  or  formalin 
in  borax  carmine  for  twenty  four  hours,  wash 
in  water,  tease  in  glycerine  and  mount  in  gh^- 
cerine  or  glycerine  jelly.  The  value  of  the 
preparations  will  depend  on  how  carefully  the 
muscle  is  teased. 

6.  If  the  laboratory  is  fitted  with  paraf&n  appa- 
ratus and  a  microtome  both  longitudinal  and 
cross  sections  of  muscle  should  be  made  and 
examined.  See  appendix  for  methods.  Direc- 
tions  for  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  minute 


MOTOR  TISSUES  49 

structure  of  striped  muscle   will    be  found  in 
80,  193-199. 

UNSTRIATED  MUSCLE. 

MATERIAI.S.  Get  from  the  butcher  a  piece  of 
the  intestine  or  gullet  three  or  four  da3^s  in  ad- 
vance of  the  lesson  and  put  it  in  a  solution  of 
bichromate  of  potash  (one  part  to  ten  of  water) . 
Cut  a  longitudinal  strip  from  the  intestine  and 
remove  from  both  the  inner  and  outer  sides  as 
much  of  the  tissue  as  you  can. 

1.  Fray  out  with  needles  a  small  portion  of  the 
remaining  muscle,  on  a  glass  slip,  mount  in 
water  and  look  for  unstriated  fibers. 

a.  Can  you  make  out  the  shape  of  the  cells? 
Look  in  your  text-book  for  figures 
of  these  cells  and  verify  the  figures. 

2.  Stain  the  preparation  b}^  allowing  a  drop  of 
,  hasmatoxylin   or   ha?malum   to   run   under   the 

cover  glass. 

a.     Do  you  see  a  nucleus  in  any  of  the  cells? 

3.  Make  an  accurate  drawing  of  an  unstriated 
muscle  cell. 

4.  Cut  sections  of  a  piece  of  hardened  intestine 
that  has  been  imbedded  in  paraffin,  stain  in 
heematoxylin,  mount  in  Canada  balsam  and 
observe  the  unstriated  muscular  tissue  which 
is  found  in  the  walls.  These  preparations  are 
permanent  and  can  be  used  when  the  study  of 
the  intestine  is  reached. 

CARDIAC  MUSCLE. 

Materials.  Farrant's  solution;  some  fresh 
heart  tissue;   20  per  cent,  nitric  acid  or  2  per 


50  MOTOR  TISSUES 

cent,  potassium  bichromate;  picro-carmine. 

1.  Place  some  very  small  pieces  of  the  fresh 
heart  muscle  in  the  20  per  cent,  nitric  acid  for 
two  days  or  in  the  2  per  cent,  potassium  bichro- 
mate solution  for  the  same  time,  then  tease  on 
a  slide  in  Farrant's  solution  and  examine. 
Notice: 

a.  That  the  cross  striations  are  present  but 

not  so  marked  as  in  true  striated 
muscle. 

b.  The   shape   of   the   fibers,    which    are 

short  and  thick  with  branching"  pro- 
cesses that  meet  similar  processes 
from  neighboring*  cells. 

2.  Tease  in  ghxerine  a  piece  of  heart  muscle 
that  was  put  fresh  into  picro-carmine  and  has 
been  standing  in  the  same  for  several  days. 

a.     Notice  the  well  defined  nucleus. 

PHYSIOLOGY  OF  MUSCLE. 

1.  Experiments.  Grasp  the  upper  right  arm 
with  the  left  hand  then  alternatel}^  straighten 
and  draw  up  the  forearm.  What  change  occurs 
in  the  biceps  muscle?  What  change  in  the 
triceps,  which  is  on  the  under  side  of  the  arm? 
When  does  the  muscle  seem'most  firm,  in  con- 
tracting or  relaxing?  What  really  takes  place 
when  a  muscle  contracts? 

2.  Grasp  the  forearm,  then  close  the  hand. 
Where  is  the  muscle  that  closes  the  hand? 
Where  is  the  muscle  that*  opens  the  hand? 
Look  on  the  back  of  the  hand  for  the  tendons 
that  straighten  the  fingers. 


MOTOR  TISSUES  51 

3.  Get  from  the  butcher  the  foot  of  a  chicken. 
Remove  the  skin  and  notice  how  the  tendons 
are  distributed  to  the  various  toes.  Notice  that 
some  of  the  tendons  pass  throug-h  loops  or,  as 
thev  are  called  bj  some  physiologists,  pulleys. 
By  pulling"  the  various  tendons  determine  which 
ones  close,  flex,  the  toes?  Which  ones 
straig-hten,  extend,  the  toes? 

4.  Stand  on  the  tiptoe  and  then  determine  which 
muscles  become  rig-id  in  so  doing-.  Locate  the 
muscles  that  extend  and  flex  the  foot. 

5.  Locate   the   muscles   which    close   the  jaws. 

6.  Can  you  explain  now  why  we  feel  so  tired  across 
the  small  of  the  back  after  standing-  for  several 
hours? 

7.  Place  a  frog-  under  a  jar  with  a  little  ether, 
for  a  few  minutes,  then  cut  throiig-h  the  skin  at 
the  base  of  the  skull,  insert  a  wire  into  the  skull 
cavity  and  destroy  the  brain. 

a.     Pinch  the  frog-'s  toe  and  notice  that  it 

moves. 
h.     Touch  the  toe  with  a  hot  wire.     What 

follows? 

c.  Touch  the  skin  on  the  leg-  or  foot  with 

some  acid.     Result? 

d.  Allow   the   current  from  an  induction 

coil    to    pass    throug-h    the     foot. 
Result? 

8.  In  the  experiments  under  7,  the  results  mig-ht 
be  attributed  entirely  to  the  nervous.connection, 
but  if  a  little  curare  be  injected  under  the  skin 
of  the  frog-  the  motor  nerve  endings  in  the 
muscles  will  be  paralyzed.      Remove  the   skin 


53  MOTOR  TISSUES 

from  the  leg  of  the  frog*  and  try  the  experiments 
indicated  under  7  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
muscle  is  still  contractile.  A  1  per  cent,  watery 
solution  of  commercial  curare  should  be  used 
for  the  experiment  and  two  or  three  drops  of  it 
may  be  injected  under  the  skin  with  a  hypoder- 
mic S3^ringe  or  a  pipette. 

9.  If  the  laboratory  possesses  a  kymograph,  in- 
duction coil  and  time  marker,  a  nerve-muscle 
preparation  should  be  made  and  experimented 
on.  Since  this  apparatus  will  be  found  in  but 
few  schools  where  elementary  work  is  done  in 
Physiology,  directions  for  its  use  will  not  be 
given  here.  Full  directions  for  such  work  will 
be  found  in  an}-  of  the  following:  82,  157;  33; 
10;  11;  12;  13;  15;  23;  35. 
10.  Take  a  book  in  the  hand  and  hold  it  out  at  right 
angles  from  the  body  until  the  arm  becomes 
quite  tired.  Notice  that  the  arm  will  gradually 
fall.  Continued  muscular  action  soon  tires  the 
muscle. 

1.  Levers.  Place  a  book  on  the  table  and  under 
one  edge  of  it  insert  the  end  of  a  ruler.  Lay 
your  pencil  under  the  ruler  near  the  book  then 
pull  down  on  the  free  end  of  the  ruler.  The 
ruler  here  acts  as  a  lever  of  the  first  class.  The 
pencil  is  the  point  of  support  or  the  fulcrum, 
the  book  is  the  weight  and  the  hand  the 
power.  Notice  that  the  fulcrum  is  between 
the  power  and  the  weight. 

Allow  the  head  to  drop  forward  then  lift  it 
up.  Where  is  the  fulcrum,  the  power,  the 
weight? 


MOTOR  TISSUES  53 

The  power  arm  of  a  lever  multiplied 
by  the  iiower  is  equal  to  the  weight  arm 
multiplied  by  the  weight,  or  written  as  a 
formula,  PAxP=WAxW.  If  any  three  are 
g-iven  the  other  can  easily  be  found.  How 
much  can  a  man  lift  with  a  lever  of  the  first 
class  if  he  weig-hs  150  pounds  and  the  PA  of 
the  lever  is  10  feet  and  the  WA  5  feet?  Draw 
a  diag-ram  of  this  lever  in  your  note  book  and 
show  the  result. 

2  Experiment  ag-ain  with  the  book  and  the  ruler 
but  this  time  push  the  ruler  under  until  the  end 
projects  on  the  other  side  of  the  book.  Lift  up 
on  the  long-  end  of  the  ruler  and  you  have  a 
lever  of  the  second  class.  The  table  under  the 
stationary  end  of  the  ruler  is  the  fulcrum,  the 
book,  the  weight  and  the  hand  the  power. 
Draw  a  diag-ram  of  the  levers  and  solve  the 
following-  problems:  In  a  lever  of  the  second 
class,  how  much  can  a  man  lifting  150  pounds 
raise,  if  the  bar  is  15  feet  long  and  the  weight 
5  feet  from  the  fulcrum?  Estimate  the  length 
of  your  foot,  the  distance  from  the  ankle  or  as- 
tragulus  bone,  where  the  weight  rests,  to  the 
heel,  where  the  tendon  of  Achilles  fastens,  then 
determine  how  much  power  is  exerted  on  the 
tendon  of  Achilles  in  lifting  the  body  on  one 
tiptoe. 

3.  Lay  your  ruler  on  the  table  and  on  one  end 
of  it  place  a  book.  Hold  the  other  end  down 
with  one  hand  and  with  the  other  hand  lift  up 
on  the  ruler  in  the  middle.  You  have  now  a 
lever  of   the   third   class.     Supposing   that  in 


54  MOTOR  TISSUES 

throwing-  hay  on  a  wagon  a  man  should  hold 
the  upper  end  of  the  pitchfork  handle  station- 
ary in  his  rig-ht  hand  and  grasp  the  fork  handle 
with  the  left  hand  two  and  one-half  feet  below 
the  upper  end,  that  the  length  of  the  fork 
handle  is  8}^  feet  and  that  the  man  can  exert  a 
force  of  50  pounds  with  his  left  arm.  what  is 
the  weight  of  the  ha}^  which  he  can  just  lift  on 
the  wagon?  If  he  loses  in  power  in  what  may 
he  gain? 

Estimate  the  length  of  your  fore  arm  from  the 
palm  of  the  hand  to  the  elbow  and  the  distance 
from  the  elbow  to  where  the  tendon  of  the 
biceps  muscle  joins  the  radius  bone.  Place  the 
elbow  against  the  body  then  determine  by 
experiment  how  many  pounds  you  can  lift  with 
your  hand.  From  the  above  data  determine 
how  much  work  the  biceps  muscle  must  do  to 
lift  the  weight. 

Locate  several  third  class  levers  in  the  body. 
What  are  the  advantages  of  a  third  class  lever? 
What  are  the  disadvantages? 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND 
DIGESTION^ 


ALIMENTARY  CANAL.     25,264:15,200.     12;  11;  24. 

la.  What  it  is.     5,  194. 
2a.   Complexity.     3,  328. 
3a.  Development  of.     36. 
4a.  Lining-  of. 

lb.  Nature  of  mucous  membrane  and  mucus. 
5a.  Parts  of. 

lb.  Glands,  in  g-eneral.     2,  106-109;  6,  121;  9,  140; 
25,  249. 
Ic.  Forms  of.     3,  284. 
2c.   Secretion.     15,  319;  10,  152. 
Id.  Physical  explanation.     3,  286. 
2d.  Chemical  explanation.     3,  287. 
2b.  Mouth.     6,  122;  13,  237. 
Ic.  Parts. 

Id.  The  teeth.     2,  112;  3,  329;  5,  199;  6,  123; 
13,  260. 
le.  The  g-ums. 

2e.  Development  of.     18,  899;  36;   13,  260. 
3e.   Sets  of  teeth. 

If.  Number  in  each  set. 
2f.  Why  is  the  milk  set  necessary? 
3f.  Name  and  locate  the  different  kinds  of 
permanent  teeth.     2,112. 
4e.  Structure  of  a  tooth.     2,  113;  3,  331. 
If.  Gross. 


56         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

2f.  Minute. 
Ig".  Enamel. 
2g.  Cement. 
3g-.  Dentine. 
4g'.  Pulp. 
5e.  Compare  the  human  teeth  with  those  of 
the  cow,  rabbit,  cat  and  dog".     15, 
304. 
he.  Hyg-iene  of  teeth.     2,  114. 
If.  What  causes  teeth  to  decay? 
2f.  How  does  the  dentist  fill  a  tooth? 
3f.  What  thing's  are  injurious  to  teeth? 
4f.   What  advice  should  be  g-iven  to  child- 
ren? 
2d.  The  tong-ue.     2,  115;  3,  332;  13,  264. 
le.  Location  and  shape  of  the  org"an. 
2e.  Of  w^hat  kind  of  tissue  composed? 
3e.  The  papillae.     3,  333. 
If.   Circumvallate. 

Ig.  Location  and  description. 
2f.  Fung-iform. 

Ig-.  Location  and  description. 
3f.  Filiform. 

Ig".  Location  and  description. 
2g'.  Compare  with  those  of  the  cat.     3, 
334. 
4f.   Physiolog"y  of  the  papillae. 
4e.   Taste  buds. '  3,  334. 

5e.  What  is  a  "furred"  tongue?     2,  117;  3, 
334. 
If.   Indication. 
3d.   Salivary  glands.     2,    117;   3,   334;    5,  203; 
13,  241;   14,  317,  324. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         57 

le.  Name  and  location  of  each. 
If.  Their  secretion. 
4d.  The  fauces.     2,  119;  3,  335. 
le.  Bounded  by  what? 
2e.  Pillars  of  fauces. 
If.  Tonsils. 

Ig-.  Diseases  of.     2,  119. 
5d.  Pharynx.     2,  117;  3,  335;  6,  128. 
le.   Location  and  description. 
2e.  Openings. 
3e.  Epiglottis. 
3b.   Oesophagus.     2,  120;  3,  336;  6,  128. 
Id.  Location. 
2d.   Structure  (coats). 

le.  Describe  each  carefully. 
3d.  Length. 
4d.  Physiology  of. 
4b.   Stomach.     2,  120;    3,  336;    5,  213;  6,  129;  13 
273,  284;   12,  319. 
Id.   Location. 
2d.   Shape. 
3d.   Size. 
4d,  Openings. 

5d.  Great  omentum.     3,  336. 
6d.  Structure  (coats).     3,  337. 
le.  Outer  serous  coat. 

2e.   Muscular  coat  of  three  layers.   2,  122. 
3e.   Submucous  coat. 
4e.  Mucous  coat. 
If.  Folds  of. 
2f.   Gastric  glands. 
7d.  The  pylorus.     3,  338. 
8d.  Blood  vessels  of  the  stomach..     3,  337. 


58         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

9d.  Nerves  of  the  stomach.     3,  337. 
5b.  Small  intestine.     2,  123;  3,  399;  6,  134. 
Id.  Size  at  the  pylorus. 
2d.  Leng-th. 

3d.  Arbitrary  divisions, 
le.  Duodenum. 
2e.  Jejunum. 
3e.   Ileum. 
4d.  Structure. 

le.  Coats.     2,  123. 

If.   Compare  the  serous,  muscular  and  sub- 
mucous  coats   with   those   of   the 
gullet  and  stomach. 
2f.  Mucous.     3,  339. 

Ig-.  The  valvulEE  conniventes.     2,  123. 
Ih.   Where  located. 
2h.  Use. 
2g-.  The  villi.     2,  124;  3,  340. 
Ih.  Where  most  numerous? 
2h.  Minute  structure. 
3h.  Function. 
5d.   Glands  of. 

le.  Those  in  the  walls. 

If.  Crypts  of  Lieberkuehn.     2,  125;  3,  341. 
Ig-.   Locate. 
2g'.   Function. 
2f.   Brunner's  glands.     3,  341. 
2e.   Those  opening  into  the  duodenum  from 
outside  the  walls. 
If.   Pancreas.     3,  3+6;  C>,  141. 
Ig".  Kind  of  gland. 
2g'.  Size  and  location. 
3g".  Secretion. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         59 

2f.  The  liver.    2,  128;  3,  344;  G,  137;  13, 
309;  14,  217. 
Ig".  Location. 
2g.  Size. 
3g.  Structure. 
4g.  Blood  vessels. 
Sg.  Bile  sac  and  duct. 
6g.  Secretion. 
6d.  The  mesenteries.     14,  189. 
6b.  Large  intestine.     2,  155;  3,  342;  6,  136. 
Id.  Position. 
2d.  Leng-th. 
3d.  Diameter. 
4d.  Divisions, 
le.  Caecum. 

If.  Vermiform  appendix.     2,  127. 
Ig-.  Explanation  of. 
2g".  Disease  of. 
2e.  Colon. 
3e.  Rectum. 
5d.   Structure  (coats). 
6d.  Ileo-colic  valve.     3,  342. 
le.  Function. 
7b.   Ductless  g-lands  more  or  less  closely  connected 
with  the  alimentary  canal. 
Id.  The  spleen.     5,  356;  2,  163,  299;  10,  260, 
272;  14,  225. 
le.  Location. 
2e.  Structure. 
3e.  Probable  function. 
2d.  Thyroid  g-land.     3,   357;    2,  299-300;    14, 
228. 
le.  Location. 


60         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

2e.  Probable  function. 
3e.   Disease  of. 
3d.  Thymus.     3,  358;  2,  130;   14,  229. 
le.  Location. 


FOODS.     7,  107-155;  25,  308;  15,  290;  10,  213;  38;  14,  153;  11; 
12,  24,  I. 

la.  Introduction. 

lb.  Losses  g"oing  on  constantly  in  the  body.    3,  299; 
6,  97;  14,  15S. 
Ic.  In  food  matter. 
2c.  In  energ-y.     J^,  301. 

Id.  What  is  the  source  of  this  energ-y?      2,  74; 

14,  160. 
2d.  What  is  conservation  of  energ-y?     2,  74;  3, 
302. 
le.  Illustrate. 
2b.  Why  we  need  food.     2,  115;  6,  97. 
Ic.  To  furnish  energ-}^ 
2c.  To  furnish  heat. 

Id.  Temperature  of  a  healthy  human  body.    3, 

76;  3,  477;  9,  13b;  35,  376;  10,  575. 
2d.  What  is  meant  by  warm  and  cold  blooded 

animals?     3,  477. 
3d.  What  is  meant  by  oxidation   in  the  body? 
3,  78;  3,  309. 
3b.  How  can  ox3'g-en  be  considered  a  food?     3,  81. 
4b.  What  is   meant   by  nutrition,  in   its   broadest 
sense?     3,  451-476;  35,  365. 
2a.  What  is  a  food?     3,  88;  3,  317. 
3a.   What  must  a  food  contain?  3,313-314;  3,88. 
lb.  Importance  of  albumens.     3,  89;  3,  319. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         61 

4a.  Relation  of  plants  and  animals  to  each  other.     3, 
90. 
lb.  Show  that  plants  build   up   and   animals  tear 
down. 
5a.  What  is  a  non-oxidizable  food?     2,  90;  3,  316. 
6a.  Kinds  of   foods  or    "alimentary  principles".     5, 
167;  6,  99;  9,  144;  14,155. 
lb.  Albumens  or  proteids.     3,  319. 
Ic.  Composition. 
2c.  Common  forms.     2,  92. 
3c.  Value  as  foods.     2,  94;  10,  282. 
Id.  Energ-y  producers. 
2d.  Heat  producers.     2,  95. 
4c.  What  are  the  albuminoids?      3,  319. 
2b.  Hydrocarbons  or  fats  and  oils.     2,  94;  3,  319. 
Ic.  Composition. 
2c.  Common  examples. 
3c.  Value  of  as  foods.     10,  282. 
Id.  As  energ-y  producers. 
2d.  Heat  producers.     2,  95. 
4c.  Source  of  our  supply. 
3b.  Carbohydrates  or  starches  and  sugars.     3,  319; 
2,  94. 
Ic.  Composition. 
2c.  Common  forms. 
.  3c.  Value  as  foods.     10,  292. 
Id.  As  energ*y  producers. 
2d.   As  heat  producers.     2,  95. 
4c.  Source  of  our  supply. 
4b.  Inorg-anic  foods.     2,  96;  3,  320. 
Ic.  Water. 
Id.  Use. 
2c.   Salts. 


62         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

Id.  Kinds. 
2d.  Value. 
7a.  Importance  of  the  following-  as  foods:  pork,  beef, 
corn,  wheat,  beans,  peas,  egg"S,  milk,  cheese, 
butter,  fruits.     3,  321-323;  G,  103. 
lb.   Some  parasites  in  pork. 
Ic.  Tape  worm.     20. 
2c.  Trichina.     2,  97. 

Id.  Life  history. 
3c.   How  should  pork  always  be  cooked? 
8a.  Alcohol,  tea  and   coffee   as   foods.     2,  98-99;  3, 

323;  5,  174;  6,  113,  159. 
9a.  Why  do  we  need  a  mixed  diet?     3,  325;  2,  101. 


DIGESTION.     9,  152-168;  25,  327;  15,  290;  17,  I29;   12;  11;  24. 

la.  Object  of.     2,  131;  3,  361;  6,  119;  9,  143. 
2a.  In   the   mouth.     6,    122;  7,  51-65;  17,   151;  1.0, 
220;  14,  166. 
lb.   The  saliva.     2,  131;  3,  361-362;  14,    169;  12, 
302. 
Ic.  Nature  of. 

Id.  Chemical  composition. 
2c.  Dig-estive  action.     2,  131;   13,  254. 
3c.  Physical  action. 
2b.  Absorption  in  the  mouth.     0,  145. 
3b.  Describe   the    process   of  swallowing*  (deg^luti- 
tion).     2,  131;  (>,  128;   17,  134;  13,  266. 
3a.  In  the  stomach.     0,  132;   7,   66-77;   17,   169;  10, 
225;  14,  176. 
lb.  Gastric  juice.     2,   135;    3,   365;    13,  289;    14, 
182;   12,  307. 
Ic.  Chemical  composition. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         63 

Id.  Pepsin. 

le.  Dig-estive  action.     3,  135. 
2d.  Other  compounds. 

le.  Dig-estive  action  of  each. 
2b.  Condition  of  the  food  in  the  stomach.     2,  136.   " 
3b.  Absorption  in  the  stomach.     2,  144;  (5,  145. 
4a.  In    the   small    intestine.     7,  79-88;   17,  182;   14, 
190. 
lb.  Dig-estive  fluids.     8,  368. 

Ic.  Pancreatic  juice.     2,   137;  6,   142;  13,   303; 
14,  184. 
Id.   Chemical  composition.     2,  137-138;  3,  369. 
le.   Dig-estiv^e  action  of  each  compound. 
2c.  Bile.     3,  370;  0,  138;  17,  189;  13,  315,  324; 
lO,  260;  14,  187. 
Id.  Chemical  composition. 

2d.  Dig-estive   action   of.     2,  139;  3,  370;   13, 
334;  15,313. 
3c.  Other  intestinal  juices.     2,  140;  3,  371. 
Id.  Effect  in  dig-estion.     2,  141. 
2b.  Condition  of  the  food  in  the  small  intestine. 
3b.  Absorption  in  the  small  intestine.     2,  144;  3, 
540. 
Ic.  Describe  the  lacteals.     2,  124,  145;  G,  145. 
2c.  The  thoracic  duct.     2,  161;  6,  146. 
5a.  The  larg-e  intestine.     13,  345. 

lb.   Condition  of  the  food  matter  here.     G,  144. 
2b.  Absorption  in.     2,  146. 
6a.  Movements  of  the  alimentary  canal.     3,  378;  15, 

331;   10,  307;  14,  203. 
7a.  What  is  dialysis  or  osmosis? 

lb.  Its  relation  to   absorption.      17,  209;  13,  353; 
10,  250;  14,  194. 


64        DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

8a.  What  is  assimilitaon?     7,  89-97. 
9a.  Hyg-iene  of  digestion.     5,  230. 
lb.  Dyspepsia.     2,  142. 
Ic.  Causes. 
2c.  Forms  of. 

Id.  Palpitation  of  the  heart. 
2b.  Cooking". 
Ic.  Object. 
2c.  Methods. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


*)THE  DISSECTION   OF  A  MAMMAL. 

Materials.  A  cat  or  rabbit  or  even  a  rat;  a 
pair  of  forceps;  a  sharp  knife  and  a  bottle  of 
chloroform  or  sulphuric  ether. 
1.  Place  the  animal  in  a  tight  box  or  under  a 
large  battery  jar,  then  insert  some  cotton 
which  has  been  saturated  with  the  chloroform 
or  ether.  When  the  animal  is  dead,  which  will 
be  in  eight  or  ten  minutes,  remove  it  to  a  board 
with  a  nail  in  each  corner,  to  which  the  limbs 
can  be  tied.  Notice  the  following  external 
features: 

a.  The  main  parts  of  the  body,  as  head, 

trunk  and  limbs. 

b.  Compare  the  fore  limbs  with   those  of 

your  own  body  as  to  bones,  joints 
and  movements.  Do  the  same  with 
the  hind  limbs. 


*)  The  student's  attention  is  directed  to  a  number  of  organs  that 
do  not  belong  to  the  alimentary  canal  because  it  is  impracticable  to 
have  a  different  animal  tor  each  set  of  organs. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION        65 

c.  The  shape  of   the   chest   as   compared 

with  that  of  the  human  body.   Why 
so  different? 

d.  The   hair    which   covers    the    animal. 

Can  3'ou  notice  more  than  one  kind 
of  hair? 

e.  The    long-    stiff    hairs    or    whiskers 

about  the  mouth.     What  is  their 
use? 

f.  Are  any  parts  not  covered  with  hair? 

g.  Shape  and  texture  of  the  external  ears. 
h.     What    moverdents     have     the    claws? 

How   is   the   sole  of  the  foot  cov- 
ered?      How    well     is     the     foot 
adapted  to  the  habits  of   the  ani- 
mal? 
2.       Open  the  movith  of  the  animal  and  notice: 

a.  The  teeth.  Compare  each  g-roup  with 
those  of  your  own  mouth. 

h.     The  gums. 

c.  Draw  out  the  tongue  and  observe  the 
papillae  on  the  upper  surface.  In 
the  cat  the  filiforin  papillee  are 
stiff  and  sharp.  Use?  Look  for 
the  circuiii vallate  papillee  on 
the  back  portion  of  the  tongue.  In 
the  rabbit  two  patches,  the  papil- 
lae foliatse,  on  the  sides  of  the 
back  portion  of  the  tongue,  contain 
numerous  taste  buds. 

d.  The  roof  of  the  mouth,  formed  b}^  the 
hard  palate  in  frcmt  and  the  soft 
palate  behind.     Find   the  uvula, 


66         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

a  small  projection  hang-ing-  down 
near  the  back  of  the  mouth  cavity. 

3.  Cut  just  throug-h  the  skin  along-  the  middle 
line  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  loosen  it  from 
the  body  and  pin  the  cut  edg-es  back.  Notice 
the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  abdomen  and  the 
directions  in  which  they  run.  Carefully  cut 
throug-h  the  abdominal  wall  from  the  tip  of  the 
sternum  downwards.  Make  a  transverse  cut 
on  each  side  and  pin  back  the  four  flaps.  Ob- 
serve: 

a.  The  coiled  intestine  and  distinguish 
both  larg-e  and  small  intestines. 

h.  In  the  upper  portion  of  the  cavity,  the 
larg-e  dark  colored  liver,  under 
which  lies  the  stomach. 

c.  Notice  the  partition  which  separates 
the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavi- 
ties, the  diaphragm.  Of  what 
kind  of  tissues  is  it  composed? 

4.  Lift  up  the  stomach  and  find  the  oesopliagvis 
where  it  passes  throug-h  the  diaphragm. 

5.  Tie  the  oesophagus  in  two  places  here  and 
cut  it  off  between  the  ligatures.  Lift  up  the 
stomach  and  notice  its  shape.  Make  a  drawing 
of  it,  showing  where  the  oesophagus  enters  and 
where  the  intestine  leaves. 

6.  On  the  right  side  and  more  or  less  loosely  con- 
nected with  the  stomach  notice  a  long  brown 
body,  the  spleen. 

7.  Along  the  first  part  of  the  small  intestine  dis- 
tinguish a  pinkish  gland,  the  pancreas. 

8.  Examine  the  liver  more  carefully  and  see  how 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         67 

many  lobes  it  has.     Find   the   gall   sac.     Can 

5"0U  trace  the  "bile  duct  to  where  it  enters  the  in- 
testine? Look  for  the  blood  vessels  of  the  liver. 
9.  The  membrane  and  blood  vessels  which  are 
fastened  all  along-  the  intestine  form  the  mes- 
entery.    Notice  how  it  is  fastened. 

10.  Trace  the  small  intestine  to  where  it  enters 
the  larg-e  intestine.  Notice  the  side  branch, 
the  csecuiii.  Does  it  have  an  appendix?  The 
caecum  is  ver}-  large  in  the  rabbit,  smaller  in 
the  cat. 

11.  Trace  the  large  intestine  and  notice  its  posi- 
tion. 

12.  Lift  up  the  intestines  and  observe  about  the 
middle  of  the  back  and  on  each  side  of  the  mid- 
dle two  dark  bodies,  more  or  less  buried  in  fat, 
the  kidneys.  Find  a  tube,  the  ureter,  lead- 
ing- from  each  one.  Trace  the  tubes  to  where 
they  enter  the  yellowish  colored  sac,  the 
bladder,  which  is  located  in  the  posterior  por- 
tion of  the  abdominal  cavity.  Notice  the  blood 
vessels  which  lead  to  and  from  the  kidneys. 

13.  Tie  the  intestine  in  two  places  about  six 
inches  from  the  stomach,  cut  it  off  and  carefully 
slit  open  both  stomach  and  intestine  under  run- 
ning water.     In  the  stomach  notice: 

a.     The  openings,  cardiac  and  pyloric. 

h.  The  nature  of  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  stomach. 

c.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestine 
arranged  in  folds  and  these  cov- 
ered with  villi. 

14.  Notice  the  lining  of  the  abdominal  cavity, the 


68         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,   FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

peritoiieum.     How  does  it  feel  to  tbe  touch? 

15.  Grasp  the  diaphrag-m  with  a  pair  of  forceps 
and  pull  down  on  it.  Can  yo;i  hear  air  rush 
in  at  the  mouth? 

16.  Observe  the  lung-s  throug-h  the  diaphragm  and 
note  their  position.  With  a  knife  point  prick 
a  hole  in  one  side  of  the  diaphragm.  Why  did 
the  lung  collapse? 

17.  Open  up  the  chest  cavity  by  cutting  in  a  me- 
dian line  from  the  lower  point  of  the  sternum  to 
the  upper  end  of  the  cavity.  Pin  back  the 
walls  and  notice: 

a.     The  lining. 

h.     The  blood  vessels  along  each  rib. 

c.  The  general  arrangement  of   the  lungs 

and  heart. 

d.  The  oesophagus. 

18.  Insert  a  tube  through  the  mouth  into  the 
windpipe  and  blow  up  the  lungs.     Notice: 

a.     The  lobes  of  the  lungs. 

h.     How  the  lungs  fit  about  the  heart. 

19.  Examine  the  heart  as  to  position  and  shape. 
Slit  open  the  membrane  covering  it,  the  peri- 
cardium. Observe  the  inner  surface  of  this 
membrane.  Did  any  liquid  escape  when  the 
membrane  was  cut?  Does  the  pericardium  fit  the 
heart  closely? 

20.  Cut  the  skin  along  the  under  side  of  the  neck 
and  carefully  remove  it  from  one  side  of  the 
head  and  neck.  Trace  the  oesophagus  and 
trachea  to  the  pharynx.  Notice  the  rings  in 
the  trachea. 

21.  Look  for  the  salivary  glands,  the  largest  just 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         69 

under  tHe  ear.     Remove  this  gland  and  harden 
it  in  Perenyi's  fluid  (see  appendix). 

THE  HUMAN  ALIMENTARY  CANAL. 

The  Mouth.     With  a  mirror  before  you  open 
the  mouth  and  examine  it. 

1.  Distinguish   the  fiiiig'iforiii  papillae,  little 

red  dots    scattered    over    the    surface    of    the 
tongue. 

2.  .  Distinguish  the  very  numerous  filiforiii 
papillae  that  cover  all  the  surface  between 
the  fungiform  papillee.  Allow  a  drop  of  vin- 
egar to  fall  on  the  tongue.  What  effect  on 
the  papillae? 

3.  Press  down  on  the  back  portion  of  the  tongue 
with  a  pencil  or  other  object  and  notice  the 
very  large  circuiiivallate  papillae. 

4.  Try  tasting  salt  on  different  portions  of  the 
tongue.  Where  can  you  taste  it  best?  Try 
sugar. 

5.  Count  your  teeth  and  distinguish  the  different 
kinds.     Have  you  any  "wisdom"  teeth? 

6.  Notice  the  roof  of  the  mouth  and   the   uvula. 

7.  Imbed  in  paraffin  a  piece  of  the  hardened 
salivary  gland  referred  to  under  materials,  cut 
sections,  mount  and  examine.  Notice  the  typ- 
ical gland  structure  of  alveoli  and  ducts. 

8.  Examine  a  longitudinal  section  of  a  tooth,  if 
such  a  section  can  be  had,  and  notice  the  fol- 
lowing: 

a.     The  enamel.     Has  it   any   structure? 
h.     The  dentine.     Structure? 
c.     The  cement. 


70         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

d.  The  pulp  cavity. 

e.  Make  a  careful   drawing-   showing   the 

structure  of  the  tooth. 

THE  OESOPHAGUS,  STOHACH  AND  INTESTINE. 

1.  Make  sections  by  the  paraf&n  method  of  the 
hardened  oesophagus  and  distinguish  under  the 
microscope  the  following  coats: 

a.  The  outer  serous  coat. 

b.  Qnder  this  a  muscular    coat   of   two 

layers,    one   circular,  the    other 
longitudinal. 

c.  Next  a  submucous  coat. 

d.  An  inner  mucous  coat. 

2.  Make  sections  of  a  piece  of  stomach  and  ex- 
amine in  the  same  way  that  you  did  the 
oesophagus.  What  likenesses  and  differences 
do  you  note? 

3.  Make  sections  of  the  small  intestine  and  note 
the  following: 

a.     The  outer  serous  coat. 

h.  The  muscular  coat.  Compare  with 
that  of  the  stomach  and  oesopha- 
gus. 

c.  The  inner  mucous  coat.  On  this 
notice  the  projecting  villi. 

4.  Section  a  small  piece  of  liver,  stain  in 
haematoxylin  and  note  the  rather  large  lobules, 
and  in  these  the  liver  cells.  If  a  piece  of  liver 
from  an  injected  animal  can  be  had  the  results 
will  be  much  better. 

FOODS. 

Materials.     A  piece  of  beef  steak;  common 

vegetables;  an  ^^^'^  nitric  acid;  test  tubes;    am- 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         71 

monia;  caustic  soda;  copper  sulphate;  fresh 
milk;  iodine  solution;  several  common  g^rains 
and  seeds;  g"lucose;  sulphuric  acid;  Fehling-'s 
solution  (appendix);  raisins;  flour;  sodium 
carbonate;  common  sug-ar;  sweet   oil;   benzine. 

1.  Water  in  foods.  Take  a  small  piece  of 
meat,  weigh  it,  then  put  it  over  a  flame  or  in  a 
current  of  air  and  keep  it  there  until  perfectly 
dry.  How  much  water  evaporated?  The  piece 
must  be  small  or  the  drying*  will  be  very  slow 
and  will  not  be  complete. 

2.  Try  pieces  of  cabbage,  potato  and  other 
veg'etables  in  the  same  way. 

1.  Ai^BUMENS  OR  PROTKiDS.  Shake  up  some 
white  of  eg'g"  thoroug'hly  in  water,  then  filter 
throug"h  cloth,  add  strong-  nitric  acid  to  a  por- 
tion of  the  filtered  liquid  in  a  test  tube.  Heat 
and  notice  the  yellow  color.  Allow  the  pre- 
paration to  cool,  then  add  a  little  ammonia. 
Look  for  an  orange  color.  This  is  a  common 
test  for  albumin. 

2.  To  another  portion  of  the  eg^g-  solution  add 
some  strong"  caustic  soda.  To  this  add  two  or 
three  drops  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  copper 
sulphate.  Warm  the  tube  g-ently  and  notice 
the  violet  color.  This  is  a  second  test  for 
albumin. 

3.  Put  some  white  of  eg^g*  in  a  test  tube,  place  in 
the  same  a  thermometer,  then  heat  g-ently  and 
watch  for  the  coag-ulation  point. 

4.  Test  macaroni,  a  product  of  flour,  by  making- 
a  solution  and  then  applying-  test  number  1. 
Test  a  little  of  the  scum   from    boiled   milk    in 


72         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

the  same  manner.     For  further  experiments  on 
proteids  see  32,  1-14. 

1.  Carbohydrates  or  starches  And  sugars. 
Scrape  a  little  potato  on  a  glass  slip,  cover  with 
a  cover  glass,  then  examine  with  the  hig-li 
power  microscope.  Note  the  shape  of  the 
grains.  Let  a  drop  of  iodine  solution  run  un- 
der the  edge  of  the  cover,  then  notice  the  blue 
color  of  each  grain. 

2.  Scrape  a  little  powder  from  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing: Beans,  peas,  corn,  rice  and  oats,  and 
test  for  starch.     Test  fruits   and  vegetables. 

3.  Scrape  some  potato  in  cold  water,  allow  the 
preparation  to  stand,  then  with  a  pipette  take 
a  little  of  the  clear  water  and  test  it  with  iodine 
for  starch.     Does  starch  dissolve  in  cold  water? 

4.  Shake  the  vessel  used  in  the  last  experiment, 
pour  some  of  the  contents  into  a  test  tube  and 
boil.     Does  the  starch  dissolve  in  hot  water? 

5.  Taste  glucose.  How  does  it  compare  with 
good  S3^rup  in  sweetness? 

a.  Put  some  glucose  in  a  test  tube,  add   a 

little  strong  sulphuric  acid  and 
heat.  The  contents  of  the  tube 
should  darken  slowly. 

b.  Add  a  little  Fehling's  solution  to  some 

glucose  and  boil.  Notice  the  yel- 
lowish-red precipitate. 


Note.  If  Fehling's  solution  is  not  at  hand  the  test  may  be 
made  by  using  the  caustic  soda  and  copper  sulphate  solutions  men- 
tioned under  experiment  number  2  for  albumin.  More  of  the  cop- 
per solution  should  be  added  and  the  preparation  should  be  boiled 
until  a  yellowish  or  red  precipitate  is  formed. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         73 

c.     Chop  Up  some   raisins,    soak   in   water 
and  test  the  water  for  g-rape  sugar. 

6.  Make  a  thin  starch  solution,  add  to  some  of 
it  a  few  drops  of  a  20  per  cent,  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  boil  until  clear.  Add  a  solu- 
tion of  sodium  carbonate  until  the  acid  has 
been  neutralized,  then  test  for  g-lucose.  The 
starch  has  been  chang^ed  to  sugar  (g-lucose). 

7.  Make  a  syrup  of  common  sugar,  add  some 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  heat,  if  necessary. 
Result? 

8.  Test  a  number  of  foods  for  sugar,  using 
Fehling's  test.  Add  the  solution  to  the  sub- 
stance to  be  tested,  then  boil.  Try  milk  and 
flour. 

1.  Fats  and  oiIvS.  Put  a  few  drops  of  sweet 
oil  in  a  test  tube,  add  some  benzine  and  shake. 
What  result?  Put  a  drop  of  the  solution  on 
some  writing  paper  and  allow  it  to  dry.  Is  a 
greasy  stain  left  on  the  paper?  Try  to  shake 
up  some  oil  with  water.     Result? 

2.  To  some  sweet  oil  in  a  test  tube  add  some 
caustic  soda  solution,  boil  until  a  soap  is  formed. 

3.  Shake  some  sweet  oil  with  some  white  of  ^^^ 
solution  and  notice  that  an  emulsion  is 
formed. 

4.  Test  several  foods  fbr  oils  by  using  the  ben- 
zine and  greasy  spot  test.  Milk  and  flour 
should  be  so  tested. 

1.  MiNKRAL  SUBSTANCES.  Kvaporate  some  milk 
to  dryness,  then  burn  what  is  left  to  ashes  on  a 
clean  piece  of  metal.     Try  other  things  in   the 


74        DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

same  manner.     The   ash    is   the   mineral   sub- 
stance. 

DIGESTION. 

Materials.  Litmus  paper,  red  and  blue; 
starch  paste;  Fehling-'s  solution;  fibrin  obtained 
by  whipping-  freshly  drawn  blood;  pepsin; 
.2  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid;  water  bath;  sweet 
milk;  commercial  rennet;  pancreatin  solution; 
sodium  carbonate;  olive  oil;  bile;  filter  paper; 
some  parchment  or  bladder;  salt;  silver  nitrate; 
an  eg"g";  sealing-  wax;  glass  tube. 

1  With  pieces  of  litmus  paper  test  the  saliva  to 
determine  whether  or  not  it  is  alkaline  or  acid. 

2.  To  some  starch  paste  solution  in  a  test  tube 
add  a  little  saliva,  allow  the  preparation  to 
stand  for  half  an  hour,  then  test  for  grape  sugar 
with  Fehling's  solution. 

3.  Prepare  three  test  tubes  as  follows:  In  one 
tube  place  a  little  boiled  fibrin  over  which  has 
been  poured  some  pepsin  solution  made  from 
the  commercial  pepsin  that  can  be  obtained  at 
any  drug  store.  In  a  second  tube  put  some  of 
the  boiled  fibrin  and  the  .2  percent,  solution  of 
hj'drochloric  acid.  In  the  third  tube  put  some 
boiled  fibrin  and  add  some  pepsin  solution  and 
some  of  the  .2  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  Place  all  three  tubes  in  a  water  bath  or 
other  warm  place.  The  tubes  should  stand  for 
several  hours,  even  over  night  if  the  tempera- 
ture can  be  kept  uniform.  What  effect  has  the 
pepsin  on  the  material  in  the  first  tube?  Has 
the  hydrochloric    acid    any    digestive    effect? 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         75 

What  has  happened  to  the  material  in  the 
third  tube? 
*)  Pepsin  and  hydrochloric  acid  are  always 
present  in  a  healthy  stomach.  If  fibrin  cannot 
be  had  for  the  above  experiment,  use  finely 
chopped     white   of   a  hard  boiled  egg". 

4.  Put  some  sweet  milk  in  a  test  tube,  then  add 
a  few  drops  of  commercial  rennet.  Keep  the 
preparation  at  a  temperature  of  98  deg-rees  for 
a  few  minutes  and  notice  that  the  milk  becomes 
solid.  Rennin  is  one  of  the  contituents  of 
gastric  juice. 

5.  Add  to  a  little  starch  paste  in  a  test  tube  a 
few  drops  of  a  pancreatin  solution.  Keep  in  a 
warm  place  for  a  short  time,  then  test  with 
Fehling's  solution. 

6.  Prepare  two  test  tubes  as  follows:  In  the 
first,  place  a  little  fibrin,  a  small  quantity  of 
pancreatin  solution  and  a  larger  quantity  of  a 
1  per  cent  solution  of  sodium  carbonate.  Pre- 
pare the  second  tube  in  the  same  way  except 
instead  of  the  sodium  carbonate  solution  use  a 
.2  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
Place  the  tubes  in  a   water   bath,    w4iere   thev 


*)  Those  who  prefer  to  do  so  may  prepare  artificial  gastric 
juice  in  the  following  manner:  Procure  a  pig's  stomach,  wash  it 
out,  then  remove  the  mucous  membrane  from  the  cardiac  end,  dry  it 
between  sheets  of  paper,  then  pulverize  it  and  cover  well  with  strong 
glycerine.  Shake  the  preparation  occasionally  and  after  several 
days  filter  through  cloth.  The  glycerine  will  have  dissolved  the 
pepsin.  Before  using,  add  several  volumes  of  .2  per  cent,  hydro- 
chloric acid.  A  pancreatin  solution  may  be  prepared  by  soaking 
the  pancreas  of  a  pig  in  water  for  several  hours  and  then  chopping 
it  up  and  treating  with  glycerine  as  was  indicated  for  pepsin. 


76         DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION 

should  remain  for  several  hours  at   a   tempera- 
ture of  98  deg-rees  Fahrenheit.     Result? 

7.  Shake  some  pancreatin  solution  in  a  tube 
with  a  small  quantity  of  olive  oil,  to  which  has 
been  added  a  little  1  per  cent,  sodium  carbonate 
solution.     Is  an  emulsion  formed? 

8.  Get  some  fresh  bile  from  the  butcher  and  test 
it  with  litmus  paper  to  determine  whether  it  is 
alkaline  or  acid. 

9.  Take  two  funnels  of  the  same  size  and  place 
in  each  a  piece  of  filter  paper.  Moisten  the 
paper  in  one  funnel  with  bile  and  the  other 
with  water.  Pour  into  each  funnel  a  few 
spoonfuls  of  olive  oil  and  set  aside  for  several 
hours.     Through  which  paper  does  the  oil  pass 

•  most  readily?  What  seems  to  be  the  effect  of 
bile  on  filtration? 
1.  *)  Osmosis  or  dialysis.  Tie  a  piece  of  bladder 
or  parchment  tig^htly  over  the  end  of  a  lamp 
chimney  and  in  the  lamp  chimney  put  some 
water  to  which  a  little  salt  has  been  added. 
Place  the  lamp  chimney  with  the  salt  water  in- 
to a  vessel  of  pure  water,  and,  after  a  few 
minutes,  test  the  pure  water  b}^  adding-  a  few 
drops  of  silver  nitrate  to  a  small  quantit}^  of  it. 
A  white  precipitate  is  formed,  showing-  that 
some  of  the  salt  has  passed  throug^h  the 
animal  membrane.  The  solutions  should  be 
tested  before  the  experiment  to  insure  that 
they  are  pure. 


*)  Since  there  is  more  or  less   absorption   along   the   alimintary 
canal,  it  is  well  to  make  the  experiments  on  dialysis  here. 


DIGESTIVE  ORGANS,  FOODS  AND  DIGESTION         77 

2.  Chip  off  the  shell  from  a  spot  at  the  larger 
end  of  an  eg-g*  but  do  not  break  the  membrane 
beneath  the  shell.  At  the  other  end  of  the  eg'g' 
make  a  small  hole  throug^h  both  shell  and 
membrane  and  over  this  fasten  with  'sealing" 
wax  the  end  of  a  g"lass  tube,  four  or  five  inches 
long".  Place  the  egg"  with  its  larger  end  down 
in  a  glass  or  bottle  of  water,  whose  mouth  is 
just  large  enough  to  prevent  the  egg  from 
passing  in.  Notice  that  after  a  few  hours  the 
contents  of  the  shell  begin  to  rise  in  the  tube. 
Why?  Does  any  of  the  egg  pass  out  into  the 
water?  Undigested  albumen  will  not  dialyze 
to  any  extent. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES. 

la.     External  medium.     3,  40; 

lb.     What? 
2a.     Internal  medium.     3,  40. 

lb.     Necessity  of  in  our  bodies.     3,  147. 
Ic.     Carrying-  food. 
2c.     Removing"  wastes,     2,  1^8. 
2b.     The  blood.     3.  41;  5,  48;  6,  170;  25,   49;    13, 
1-57;  10,  331;  14;  17;  11;  12. 
Ic.     Quantity    and  g-eneral   distribution   of.     2, 
148;  3,  61,  211;  25,  50. 
Id.     Where  not  found? 
2c.     Composition.     2,  148;  3,  44;  5,  94. 
Id.     Plasma. 

2d.     Corpuscles.     2,  149;  3,  44;  6,  l7l. 
le.     Red.     25,  51. 
If.     Shape. 
2f.     Size. 

3f.     Abundance  of. 
4f.     Color. 
5f.     Structure. 

Ig.     Ha^maglobin.     2,  150. 

Ih.     Blood  crystals.     3,  47;  25,   56. 
2g.     Stroma. 
6f.     Consistency. 
7f.     Arterial  and  venous  blood. 
8f.     Orig-in  of.     3,  61;  25,  59. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES  79 

2e.     Colorless.     2,  150;  3,  47;  25,  62. 
If.     Size  as  compared  with  the  red. 
2f.     Number  as  compared  with  the    red. 
3f-     Structure. 
Ig".     Nucleus. 
2g.     No  cell  wall. 
4f.     Movements. 
5f.     Phjsiolog-y. 
3e.     Blood  plaques.     3,  49;  25,  65. 

If.     Compare  with  the  other  corpuscles. 
4e.     Blood  of  other  animals.     3,  49. 
3c.     Coagulation.     2,  152;  3,  51;  6,173;  25,    67. 
Id.     Stages  of. 

le.     Gelatinization. 
2e.     Concave  surface. 
3e.     Shrinking  of  the  clot. 
4e.     Buffy  coat. 
2d.     Cause  of.     2,  152;  3,  51; 
le.     Fibrin. 

If.     Why  form?     3,  53; 
2f.     From  whence  come?     3,  54-56. 
Ig.     Composition. 
Ih.     Fibrinogen. 
2h.     Fibrin  ferment. 
3h.     Salts. 
3d.     Coagulation  in  other  animals. 
3b.     The  lymph.      2,  157;  3,  42;   5,    98;    10,  362, 
437;  14;  11;  11;  12. 
Ic.     Composition.     2,  162;  3,  49. 
Id.     Watery   liquid. 
2d.     Corpuscles. 

le.     How  like  white  blood  corpuscles? 
2e.     Physiolog}'  of. 


80  CIRCULATORY  TISSUES 

2c.     Where  found? 
3c.     How  renewed?     2,  158. 
4c.     Lymph  vessels. 
Id.     Ordinary  form. 
2d.     Lacteals.     2,   161. 
3d.     Thoracic  duct, 
4b.     Heart  and  blood  vessels.     2,  163;  5,  59. 
Ic.     General  flow  of  the  blood  in  life.     3,  211. 
2c.     The  heart.     2,  165-169;  6,  176;  25,  150;  13, 
57-89;  15,  217. 
Id.     Position.     3,  213. 
2d.     Membranes.     3,  213. 
le.     Outside. 
If.     Lining-. 

Ig-.     Liquid  bathing". 
2g.     Disease  of.     3,  213. 
2e.     Inside. 
3d.     Main  divisions  of.     3,  214. 

le.     Nature  of  the  walls  of  each  cavit}^ 
4d.     Auriculo-ventricular  valves.     3,  217. 
le.     Chordae  tendineae. 
2e.     Papillary  muscles. 

If.     Physiolog-y  of.     2,  182;  3,  230. 
5d.     Sernilunar  valves.     3,  217. 
le.     Location. 
2e.     Use. 
6d.     Nourishment  of  the  heart. 

le.     Blood  vessels  concerned  in.     5,  86. 
5b.     Arterial  system.     3,  218;  0,  180;  13,  106. 
Ic.     Structure  of  the  arteries.     2,  172;  3,  225;  5, 
77;  25,  159. 
Id.     Physiology  of  this  structure.     2,  190. 
2c.     Trace  the  main  arteries  of  the  body.     2,  169. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES  81 

6b.     The  venous  system.     2,  173,  6,  182,    13,    158, 
Ic.     Structure  of  the  veins.     3,  226, 

Id.     The  valves.     2,  174, 
2c.     Difference  in  structure  of  veins  and  arteries. 
3c.     How    disting-uish     the    two      in     butchered 

animals? 
4c.     Trace  the  chief  veins  of  the  body. 
7b.     The  capillaries.     3,  220;  0,  183;  15,  281. 
Ic.     Structure. 
2c.     Location. 
3c.     Phj^siolo^y  of. 

Id.     Osmosis. 
4c.     Rate  of  blood  flow  in.     2,  187;  5,  78,  84. 
8b.     What  is  the  pulmonary  circulation?     3,    223; 

10,  395. 
9b.     What  is  the  systemic  circulation? 
10b.     What  is  the   portal    circulation?      2,   176,    3, 

223;  6,  186. 
lib.     Beats  of  the  heart.     2,    180;    3,   227;  5,  75;  0, 
186;  25,  161. 
Ic.     Systole. 
2c.     Diastole. 
3c.     Pause. 
4c.     What  chang-e  in  the  heart's  shape   when   it 

beats?     3,  227. 
5c.     Cardiac  impulse  or  heart  beat.     2,    180;   3, 
228. 
Id.     Full  explanation. 
6c.     Events  occuring-  during-  a  cardiac  cycle.     2, 

181;  3,  228. 
7c.     Sounds  of  the  heart.     2,  183;  10,  410. 
Id.     Cause  of  each. 
12b.     Use  of  the  auricles.   2,  183;  3,  231;  10,  426. 


83  CIRCULATORY  TISSUES 

13b.     Work  of  the  heart.      2,    148;     3,    233;      10, 

396. 
14b.     Nerves  of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels.    2;  185; 
3,  253-273;  5,  90;  25,  173;  13,  89;  15,  261; 
10,  440;  11;  13. 
15b.     Flow  of  the  blood  outside  the  heart.     3,   234, 
Ic     Axial  current.     3,  235. 
2c.     Inert  layer. 
3c.     Internal  friction.     3,  236. 
4c.     Arterial  pressure.     3,  240-246;  10,  377,  383. 
Id.     Thing's  that  may  influence, 
le.     Rate  of  heart  beat. 
2e.     Force  of  the  heart  beat. 
3e.     Peripheral  resistance,     2,  187. 
5c.     Rate  of  blood  flow.     3,  248;  10,  390. 
6c.     The  pulse.     2,  186;  3,  246;    13,    112;     10, 
385,   431. 
Id.     Cause. 
2d.     Rate  of  travel. 
3d.     May  indicate  what?     2,  186. 
4d.     Why  not  found  in  the  veins?     2,  189. 
16b.     Secoudar}^  causes  of  circulation. 
Ic.     Gravity. 

2c.     Transient  pressure  on  the  veins. 
3c.     Breathing-. 
17b.     Proofs  of  the  circulation.     3,  251. 
18b.     Hyg-iene. 

Ic.     Taking-  cold.     2,  191. 

2c.     Lack  of  coloring-  matter.     3,  60. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES  83 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


THE  BLODD. 

.Materials.  A  needle;  normal  salt  solution; 
1  per  cent,  acetic  acid;  a  solution  of  mag^enta; 
a  frog";  iodine;  Fehling-'s  solution. 
1.  Structure  of  the  HuxMAn  Blood.  Draw 
a  drop  of  blood  from  the  little  fing-er  by  insert- 
insf  a  needle  under  the  skin  at  the  base  of  the 
nail.  Place  the  blood  on  a  g-lass  slip,  add  a 
little  normal  salt  solution  and  apply  a  cover 
g-lass.  With  the  low  power  observe  the  many 
small  apparently  spherical  bodies,  the  cor- 
I)uscles.  What  is  their  color? 
,  2.  With  the  high  power  observe  the  red  cor- 
puscles. 

a.  What  is  their  shape? 

b.  Look   for   their  arrang^ement  in  coin-like 

rows. 

c.  Can  you  distinguish  any  outward  coat  or 

wall? 
3.  In  the  preparation  just  used,  with  the  high 
power,  look  for  the  white  corpuscles.  They 
are  slightly  larg-er  than  the  red  and  not  so 
numerous.  If  not  seen  at  first  press  on  the 
cover  g^lass  with  a  needle  while  looking-  into 
the  instrument.  The  white  corpuscles  remain 
stationary  while  the  red  ones  move  about. 

a.  Are  the  white  corpuscles  all  of  the  same 

shape? 

b.  Number  of  white  as  compared  with  the 

red  corpuscles. 

c.  Do  the  white  corpuscles  seem  to  change 


84  CIRCULATORY   TISSUES 

their  shapes?     Repeat  the  "exercises 
outlined  under  motor  tissues  on  pag^e 
43. 
d.     Can  3^ou  observe  any   cell    wall    in    these 
corpuscles? 

4.  Run  a  drop  of  1  per  cent,  acetic  acid  un- 
der the  cover  glass  of  the  preparation  just  used 
and  notice: 

a.  That    the     protoplasm     becomes  trans- 

parent. 

b.  That  the  nucleus  comes  into  view. 

5.  Run  a  drop  of  a  weak  solution  of  mag-enta 
under  the  cover  of  a  fresh  preparation.  Notice 
that  it  stains  the  nucleus  of  the  white  corpuscles 
deep  red  and  the  protoplasm  not  so  red. 

6.  Prepare  another  slide  by  mixing-  a  little  nor- 
mal salt  solution  with  a  drop  of  blood  before 
applying  the  cover  g^lass.  Let  the  preparation 
stand  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  and  then 
allow  water  to  run  under  the  cover  until  the 
corpuscles  are  nearly  colorless.  Examine  with 
the  high  power  for  fine  fibers  of  fibrin. 

1.  Frog's  Blood.     Prepare  a    slide   of   Frog's 

blood  and  notice  the  red  corpuscles. 

a.  What  is  their  shape  when  seen  flatwise? 

b.  Shape  when  seen  edgewise? 

c.  The  rather  large  nucleus. 

2.  Observe  the  white  corpuscles,  which  are 
smaller  than  the-red.     What  is  their  shape? 

3.  How^  do  the  corpuscles  of  the  frog  compare 
with  those  of  man? 

4.  Stain  the  preparation  with  [a  little  magenta 
and  observe  the  effect. 


CIRCULATORY    TISSUES  85 

1.  Coagulation.  Take  two  bottles  or  jars  to 
the  slaughter  house  and  fill  them  with  fresh 
blood  as  it  runs  from  some  animal.  Set  one 
bottle  aside  where  it  can  remain  perfectly 
quiet  until  the  blood  has  clotted. 

Mark  this  bottle  number  1.  With  a  doubled 
wire  begin  immediately  to  stir  the  blood  in  the 
second  bottle,  number  2,  and  continue  to  do  so 
until  the  blood  in  bottle  number  1  has  coagu- 
lated. The  bottles  may  now  be  carried  to  the 
laboratory  but  great'  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  shake  number  1.     Observe  bottle  number   1. 

a.  How  did   the  blood  appear  just  after   it 

had  clotted?  What  was  its  color? 
Was  its  surface  concave?  If  so  why? 

b.  After  the  bottle  has  stood  for  some  time 

notice  that  the  clot  grows  smaller 
and  that  there  is  a  layer  of  serum 
all  around  it.  How  can  this  be  ex- 
plained? 

c.  Can    you    observe    any  difference  in   the 

serum  at  the  top  of  the  bottle  and 
that  at  the  bottom,  or  the  so  called 
biilTy  coal? 

2.  Pour  some  of  the  serum  into  a  test  tube  and 
heat  it.  Does  it  coagulate?  In  this  respect 
how  does  it  compare  with  the  white  of  egg 
when  boiled. 

3.  Test  the  serum  for  starch  by  adding  a  few 
drops  of  iodine  solution.     Result? 

4.  Test  for  sugar  by  using  Fehling's  solution 
(page  72).     Result? 

5.  Test  for  oils    by     the    benzine   and   greasy 


86  CIRCULATORY   TISSUES 

Spot  method  (pag-e  73). 

6.  Test  serum  for  mineral  substances  in  the 
same  manner  that  you  did  milk  (pag-e  73).  Re- 
sult? 

7.  What  is  your  conclusion  as  to  the  different 
kinds  of  food  stuffs  found  in  blood  serum? 

8.  Examine  bottle  number  2.  Has  the  blood 
coasfulated?  Lift  the  wire  from  the  bottle  and 
wash  the  corpuscles  from  the  adhering-  fibrin. 

a.  What  is  the  color  of  the  fibrin?      Pull   it 

to  see  what  properties  it  possesses. 

b.  Test  the  fibrin  for  albumin  by  the   nitric 

acid    and  ammonia     method     (pag-e 
71).      Result? 

c.  Does  the  blood  appear  more  red  at  the 

surface  in  bottle  number  2  than  be- 
low? Why?  Shake  some  of  the 
blood  vig-orously  in  a  test  tube. 
Does  the  shaking  chang-e  the  color? 
Why? 
THE  HE4RT  AND  BLOOD  VESSELS, 

Materials.  Pieces  of  hardened  artery  and 
vein;  picro  carmine  solution;  g-lass  and 
rubber  tubing-.  Get  from  the  butcher  the 
heart  and  lungs  of  some  mammal,  such 
as  a  pig-  or  lamb,  that  have  been  removed 
from  the  animal  in  tact,  care  having-  been 
taken  to  cut  neither  the  heart  nor  the 
lung-s.  These  parts  from  larger  animals,  such 
as  the  cow,  will  answer  but  they  are  unwieldy 
and  do  not  show  the  parts  much  better  than 
those  from  smaller  mammals. 
1.         Place  the  heart  and  lungs  on   a   table  before 


CIRCULATORY   TISSUES  87 

you,  dorsal  side  down,  with  the  trachea  to- 
wards you.  Notice  the  position  of  the  heart. 
Where  is  it  located  with  reference  to  the  lobes 
of  the  lung-s?  Inflate  the  lungs  and  notice  how 
they  fold  around  the  heart.  The  lungs  may  be 
inflated  by  placing  a  tube  in  the  trachea  and 
then  blowing  into  it  w^ith  the  mouth,  or,  better, 
if  a  hand  or  foot  bellows  be  accessible,  with 
that.     How  many  lobes  has  each  lung? 

2.  With  the  heart  and  lungs  in  the  same  posi- 
tion, look  for  the  membrane  which  surrounds 
the  heart,  the  pericardium. 

a.  Slit  open  the  pericardium.     Is  there  any 

liquid  inside  it?     What  i^s  this  liquid? 

b.  Notice   the   inside    surface   of   the   peri- 

cardium. 

c.  Where  is  the  pericardium  largest?  Why? 
b.     Carefully  trim  aw^ay  the  pericardium  and 

notice    the    base    and    apex  of  the 
heart. 

3.  Distinguish  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the 
heart.  Make  out  the  auricles  and  ventri- 
cles. The  left  ventricle  may  easily  be  dis- 
tinguished by  feeling  of  the  two  and  selecting 
the  one  which  has  the  thickest  walls. 

4.  Find  the  following  blood  vessels: 

a.  The  aorta     whose   cut   end   is   plainly 

visible. 

b.  The  piilinoiiary  artery  which  passes 

from  the  lung  to    the    heart    and    is 
very  short. 

c.  The  two  vena  cavsp.      Notice  their  cut 

ends    and    verifv  the   fact  that   one 


88  CIRCULATORY  TISSUES 

is  ascending   and  the  other  de- 
scending. 
d.     The    pnlnionary   veins.       They  are 
short  and  must  be   looked   for   care- 
fully. 

5.  Make  a  drawing-  of  the  heart  in  position  and 
show  all  the  parts  that  are  visible. 

6.  Remove  the  heart  from  the  lung-s  by  cutting- 
the  blood  vessels  off  as  far  awa}^  from  the  lungs 
as  possible.  Notice  the  two  grooves  running- 
obliquely  from  the  base  to  the  apex  of  the 
heart.  These  lines  mark  the  division  be- 
tween the  two  halves.  Notice  the  blood 
vessels  running-  in  the  grooves. 

Make  a  cut  across  the  middle  of  the  right 
ventricle  half  way  between  the  grooves,  which 
divide  the  heart  into  right  and  left  halves, 
and  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  grooves.  Cut 
lightly,  just  enough  to  sever  the  walls,  being 
sure  that  you  do  not  injure  the  valves  and 
muscles  inside  the  heart.  Open  the  right 
ventricle  from  one  end  to  the  other  but  do  not 
injure  in  any  way  the  left  ventricle.     Observe: 

a.  The    cone-like   muscular  projections   in- 

side the  ventricle,  the  papillary 
ninscles.     How  many  are  there? 

b.  The     tendon-like    cords,  chorda*  ten- 

diiieie,  which  lead  away  from  the 
papillary  muscles  to  the  flaps  above. 
How  many  groups  of  these  chorda? 
tendinea?  are  there? 

c.  The    thin    flaps,     valves,    which    hang 

down  from  the  roof  of  the  ventricle. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES  89 

How  many  are  there  in  the  right 
ventricle?  ^h^i^  name?  What 
kind  of  edges  have  these  valves? 

d.  The  distribution  of  the  chordaj  tendineac. 

Do  those  from  one  papillary  muscle 
all  connect  with  the  same  valve? 
Is  there  any  advantage  in  the  way 
they  are  arranged? 

e.  Push  the  edges   of   the    valves  together 

and  see  if  they  close  the  opening  be- 
tween the  auricle  and  the  ventricle, 
the  auriculo  veutricuUir  aper- 
ture. 

7.  Cut  upwards  between  the  edges  of  two  of  the 
valves  and  open  the  right  auricle. 

a.  Compare    the  wall   of   the    auricle    with 

that  of  the  ventricle. 

b.  Find    the    openings    of    the  two    Yfina^ 

caVcP.  In  what  part  of  the  auricle 
are  they  located? 

c.  Find  the  opening  of  the  coronary  vein  in 

the  back  of  the  auricle.  Run  a 
broom  straw  into  this  vein  and  de- 
termine where  it  leads.  What  is  its 
function? 

8.  Find  the  opening  of  the  pulmonary  artery  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  right  ventricle.  Ob- 
serve the  three  flaps,  semilunar  valves, 
which  close  it. 

9.  By  cutting  between  two  of  the  S3milunar 
valves  slit  open  the  pulmonary  artery  length- 
wise and  observe: 

a.    The  shape  of  each  of  the  semilunar  valves. 


90  CIRCULATORY   TISSUES 

b.  The  small  knot-like  projection  on  the 
edg-e  of  each  valve.  What  is  its 
function?  Try  to  close  the  valve 
and  you  will  see. 

10.  Find  the  cut  end  of  the  aorta.  If  it  is  not 
short  enoug-h  so  that  you  can  see  the  semilunar 
valves  from  above,  cut  off  pieces  until  vou  can 
see  these  valves. 

a.  Pour   water  into  the  aorta    and   observe 

how  the  semilunar  valves  close. 

b.  Look  for  two   openings,    the   coronary 

arteries,  just  above  the  semilunar 
valves.  Insert  a  broom  straw  into 
one  of  these  arteries  and  trace  it. 
"What  is  its  function? 

11.  Remove  the  upper  portion  of  the  left 
auricle.  How  does  its  inner  surface  compare 
w4th  that  of  the  right  auricle?     Notice: 

a.  The  pulmonar}-  veins.      How   many   are 

there?  Do  thej-  open  near  each 
other? 

b.  The  mitral  valves  from  above.    Th<?se 

valves  close  the  left  auriciilo 
ventricular  aperture. 

12.  Gently  pour  water  into  the  left  auricle.  What 
becomes  of  the  first  water  poured  in?  Con- 
tinue to  pour  and  notice  the  change  in  posi- 
tion of  the  valves.  When  the  ventricle  and  a 
portion  of  the  auricle  are  filled  with  water 
what  is  the  position  of  the  mitral  valves?  Pour 
out  the  water  and  again  fill  the  heart  but  this 
time  hold  the  cup  one  or  two  feet  above  the 
auricle  and  pour  rapidly.     How   do   the   valves, 


CIRCULATORY   TISSUES  91 

close?     Make  a  drawing*  showing*. the  valves  as 
seen  from  above. 

13.  Make  an  oblique  cut  across  the  left  ventricle 
similar  to  the  one  made  in  the  rig^ht  ventricle. 
Observe: 

a.  The  number  of  papillary  muscles. 

b.  The  attachment  of  thechord^e  tendinetC. 

c.  The   thickness   of    the    wall    of   the   left 

ventricle  as  compared    with    that   of 
the  right. 

d.  The  opening  into  the  aorta  as  seen  from 

inside  the  ventricle. 

14.  Cut  through  the  partition  between  the  two 
halves  of  the  heart,  the  scptiiiii,  and  notice 
its  thickness,  also  that  there  is  no  direct  open- 
ing* between  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the 
heart. 

ARTERIES,  VEINS  AND  CAPILLARIES. 

General  Distribution.  The  arteries  and 
veins  can  best  be  traced  in  a  mammal  whose 
blood  vessels  have  been  injected,  preferably  the 
veins  with  one  color  and  the  arteries  with 
anoth'er,  but  the  larger  vessels  may  be  seen 
fairly  well  in  an  animal  that  has  been  killed 
without  bleeding.  Directions,  apparatus  and 
materials  for  injecting*  will  be  found  in  the 
appendix.  A  cat,  rabit,  dog*  or  even  a  rat 
will  answer  for  this  purpose. 
2.  Open  the  animal  along*  the  middle  line  of  the 
abdomen  and  chest,  pin  back  the  cut  edges  and 
notice  the  portion  of  the  aorta  in  the  chest, 
thoracic  aorta. 

a.     How  many  branches  does  it   give  off  just 


92  CIRCULATORY   TISSUES 

after  leaving-  the  heart? 

b.  Observe  *the  branches  g"oing-  to  each  fore 

limb,  the  right  and  left  sub- 
clavian  arteries. 

c.  The  two   branches   running-   along-   each 

side  of  the  windpipe  and  continuing- 
along-  the  sides  of  the  head,  the 
rigiit  and  left  carotid  arteries. 

3.  Observe  the  branch  of  the  aorta  which  ex- 
tends into  the  abdominal  cavity  and  note  the 
following-  subdivisions: 

■  a.     Small    branches  going-  to  the  stomach, 
liver,  spleen  and  mesentery. 

b.  The    divisions   passing  to  the  kidneys, 

renal  arteries. 

c.  A  small  branch  which  supplies  the  lower 

portion  of  the  intestine. 

d.  The  final  division  of  the  abdominal  aorta 

into  two  branches,  the  common 
iliac.   These  supply  the  hind  limbs. 

4.  Locate  the  pulmonary  artery  which  leads 
from  the  right  ventricle  to  the  lungs. 

5.  Construct  a  diasfram  to  show  the  chief  divi- 
sions  of  the  arterial  S3^stem. 

6.  Observe  the  two  large  veins  leading  to  the 
right  auricle,  the  vena  cava  ascending 
and  vena  cava  descending.  Also  notice 
the  following  tributaries  of  the  descending 
vena  cava. 

a.  The  jugular  veins  on  each  side  of  the 

neck. 

b.  The  right  and  left  subclavian  veins 

which  lead  from  each  of  the  fore  limbs. 


CIRCULATORY   TISSUES  93 

7.  Observe  the  following-  tributaries  of  the  as- 
cending vena  cava: 

a.  The  portal  vein,  which  gathers  blood 

from  the  intestine,  stomach,  spleen 
and  pancreas  and  carries  it  to  the 
liver. 

b.  The  ver}^   short   lieijatic   veins  which 

g-ather  the  blood  from  the  liver  and 
pour  it  into  the  vena  cava. 

c.  The  two  iliac  veins  that  come  from  the 

-  hind  limbs. 

8.  Observe  the  pulmonary  veins,  which  lead 
from  the  lungs  to  the  heart. 

9.  Construct  a  diagram  showing  the  chief  veins, 
similar  to  the  one  called  for  under  arteries. 

1.  Minute  Structure.  Cut  cross  sections  of  a 
piece  of  the  aorta  of  a  cow  that  has  been 
hardened  in  2  per  cent,  potassium  bichromate 
for  ten  days,  stain  in  picro  carmine  and  mount 
in  glycerine.  Observe  the  three  coats  which 
make  up  its  walls: 

a.  An  inner  coat   lined   with   a   layer    of 

fiat  cells  and  composed  chiefly  of 
yellow  elastic  tissue. 

b.  A   middle     coat    made   up  of   yellow 

elastic  tissue  and  unstriped  muscu- 
lar tissue. 

c.  An  outer  layer   of  white  fibrous   connec- 

tive tissue  with  a  small  amount 
of  yellow  fibrous  and  muscular 
tissue. 

d.  Why  is   so   much   yellow    elastic   tissue 

present? 


94  CIRCULATORY   TISSUES 

2.  Make  sections  of  the  walls  of  a  vein-  and  ex- 
amine one  in  the  same  way  as  the  artery.  Ob- 
serv^e  the  three  coats  but  notice  that  those  in 
the  vein  are  much  thinner  than  the  ones  in  the 
artery. 

3.  If  possible  examine  sections  of  tissue  from  an 
animal  whose  capillaries  have  been  injected, 
either  with  colored  gelatine  or  with  silver 
nitrate  solution,  the  latter  to  stain  but  not  to 
fill  the  capillaries. 

THE  CIRCULATION. 

1.         Make  a  hole  one  inch   in  diamater   near   the 
end  of  a  shingle  or  other  thin  board  and  over 
the  hole  fasten  one  of  the  common  g-lass   slips 
used  with  the   microscope.      Shape   the   board 
so  that  it  will  rest   on   the   stage   of   the   mic- 
roscope with  the  hole  over  the  aperture  in  the 
stage.       Trim  the   board     so   that  it  will    be 
just  large  enough  to  support  the  body  of  a  frog 
when  the  leg   is  extended.      Select   an    active 
frog,  wrap  around  it  a  damp  cloth    but   leave 
one  leg  exposed.     With  strings  tie  the  wrapped 
frog  to  the  board  in  such  a  position   that   the 
web  of  the  exposed  foot  will  just  come  on  the 
glass  slip   over   the   hole   in  the   board.      Tie 
threads  to  the    various    toes    and    with   these 
stretch  the  web  on  the   glass  slip.      Place   the 
frog's  foot  under  the  microscope    and    observe: 
a.     Large  vessels,  supplied  with  blood  from 
still     larger   vessels,    in  which  the 
currents    are     moving    swiftly   and 
apparently    towards   the    body,    the 
arteries.      The     direction    of   the 


CIRCULATORY    TISSUES  95 

flow  is  only  apparent  since  the 
microscope  inverts  the  imao-e. 

b.  Laro;-e  vessels,  supplied  with  blood    from 

still  smaller  vessels,  in  which  the 
blood  dees  not  move  so  swiftly  as 
in   the   arteries,    the   veins. 

c.  The    numerous     small    vessels,    capil- 

laries. 

d.  The  oval  blood    corpuscles  which 

move  quite  freely,  and  the  Avliite 
corpuscles  that  appear  to  adhere 
to  the  walls,  more  or  less.  Do  the 
red  corpuscles  ever  need  to  chang-e 
their  shapes  in  order  to  pass  throug^h 
the  capillaries?  With  a  pin  slig"ht- 
ly  irritate  the  web  of  the  frog's  foot 
and  observe  that  the  white  corpus- 
cles collect  in  larg-e  numbers  at  the 
point  of  irritation.  This  is  a  simple 
illustration  of  inflamation. 

2.  Kill  a  frog"  in  the  manner  described  on  pag"e 
51,  pin  out  the  feet  on  a  board  then  make  a  slit 
along-  the  middle  line  of  the  abdomen  and  chest 
and  pin  back  the  flaps.  Wash  away  any  blood 
that  may  have  accumulated,  find  the  heart  and 
observe  its  beat.  Note  the  time  of  contraction 
of  the  two  auricles,  the  time  of  contraction  of 
the  single  ventricle.  Feel  of  the  heart  as  it  is 
about  to  contract  and  note  its  rig-idity.  Ob- 
serve the  heart's  systole,  diastole  and 
pause. 

3.  Find  the  pulse  in  your  wrist  and  in  as  many 
other  places  on  the  bod}--  as  possible,  especially 


90  CIRCULATORY    TISSUES 

about  the  head.  Count  the  number  of  pulse 
beats  to  the  minute  under  the  following-  con- 
ditions: 

a.  After  3'ou  have  been  quiet  for  some  time. 

b.  After   running-     quickl}"   up    a    flig-ht  of 

stairs  or  after  other  active  exercise. 

c.  Just  after  awakening-  in  the  morning-. 

d.  Before  and  after  a  meal. 

4.  Place  your  ear  to  the  chest  of  a  fellow 
student  and  listen  for  the  sounds  of  the  heart. 
Observe  these  sounds  carefully.  If  they  can- 
not be  heard  readily  a  simple  stethoscope  ma}- 
be  made  for  the  purpose  b}'  connecting-  a  small 
f^lass  funnel  with  a  short  piece  of  rubber  tub- 
ing- to  a  g-lass  U  tube.  To  the  arms  of  the  U 
tube  attach  long-er  pieces  of  rubber  tubing. 
Pieces  of  curved  g-lass  tubing  may  be  con- 
nected with  the  two  free  ends  of  rubber  tubing 
for  ear  pieces.  With  the  two  ends  in  the  ears 
place  the  funnel  over  the  heart  and  listen.  The 
thinner  the  clothing  between  the  chest  and  the 
funnel  the  better  will  the  sounds  be  heard.  If 
a  U  tube  is  not  at  hand  a  single  tube  from  the 

.    funnel  to  one  ear  will  answer.      A   tin    funnel 
may  be  used  if  more  convenient. 

5.  To  show  the  action  of  the  heart  prepare  the 
apparatus  illustrated  by  figure  2.  A,  B,  C,  D  are 
glass  tubes  tied  into  the  vena  cava, aorta,  pulmo- 
nary artery  and  pulmonary  vein.  The  ends  of 
the  tubes  have  been  enlarged  so  that  they  will 
not  slip  out.  All  other  openings  in  the  heart 
should  be  tied.  E,  F,  G,  11  are  rubber  tubes 
which  connect   the  heart   with  the  funnels,  I, 


CIRCULATORY   TISSUES 


97 


C^K   h.,^ 


FIG.    2. 

J.    K,  Iv  are  two  bent  g-lass  tubes  which  hang- 

on  the  rims  of  the  funnels  I,  J.      Pour   water 

into  I  and  compress  the  heart  with  both  hands 

and  continue  to  pour  in  water  until  the  whole 

apparatus  is  filled.     Gently  compress  the  heart 

with  the  hands  then  release  it,   thus  imitating- 

as  nearly  as  possible  the  action  of  the  heart  in 

life,   and   there   will    be    a   circulation   of   the 

water  throug-h  the  tubes  similar  to  that  of  the 

blood  throug^h  the  blood  vessels  in  life. 

Figure    3,      illustrates     a     piece     of    apparatus 

which   ma}^   be   easily     constructed     to     show    why 

the  blood  does  not  flow    intermittently  in    the    veins, 

also     arterial    pressure.  A    and    B     are    two    tin 

cylinders,     each  5  inches  in  diameter   and   27  inches 

high.        At    the     base    of    each     cylinder    are    two 

small   tubes,    F,  P,  for  the  attachment  of  rubber  tub- 


98 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES 

G  H-- 


-A 


B- 


FIG.    3. 

ing".  The  cylinders  are  screwed  to  a  base  and  are 
connected  b}^  the  tubing-  and  bulb  C,  also  by  the  tube 
D.  At  E  there  is  a  clamp  which  may  be  chang-ed 
to  reg-ulate  the  resistance.  G,  H  are  the  uprig^ht 
parts  of  two  floating-  g-aug-es  which  are  made  of 
cork  and  wood.  A  large  cork  is  placed  on  the 
end  of  each  of  the  uprig-ht  pieces.  The  pump  is  an 
ordinary  syring-e  bulb. 

For  the  experiment  the  cylinders  are  partially 
filled  with  water,  eig-ht  or  ten  inches  deep,  care  being- 
taken  that  the  rubber  tubing-   also  fills  without   air. 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES  99 

Remove  the  clamp  E  and  then  slowly  compress  the 
bulb  and  notice  the  effect  upon  the  floats  G,  H. 
When  the  bulb  is  compressed  the  water  which  it  con- 
tains is  thrown  into  B.  While  the  hand  is  still  on 
the  bulb  no  water  can  come  into  it  from  A,  con- 
sequently the  float  in  B  must  be  lifted  a  short  dis- 
tance. This  is  only  temporary^  provided  the  long- 
tube  has  a  diameter  equal  to  or  g-reater  than  that  con- 
nected with  the  bulb,  for  the  extra  water  in  B  soon 
runs  back  into  A  and  the  floats  stand  at  the  same 
heig-ht.  Narrow  the  diameter  of  the  long-  tube  with 
the  pinch-cock  K  and  again  operate  the  bulb.  It  will 
be  noticed  now  that  it  takes  much  longer  for  the  two 
floats  to  g-ain  their  equilibrium  on  account  of  the 
slowness  with  which  the  water  passes  throug-h  the 
tube  at  E.  Continue  the  pumping-  now  for  some  time 
and  notice  that  the  float  H  continues  to  rise  higher 
and  hig-her,  but  after  a  few  moments  it  stops.  Why?- 
When  the  bulb  was  operated,  say  once  in  two  seconds, 
the  water  had  time  to  g-ain  its  equilibrium  before  the 
next  beat,  consequently  the  floats  remained  at  the 
same  mark,  except  the  temporary  disturbance.  When 
operated  once  a  second  the  water  did  not  have  time 
to  g-ain  its  equilibrium  before  the  next  beat,  conse- 
quently the  float  in  B  stood  a  little  hig-her  and  that 
in  A  a  little  lower.  The  variation  g-rows  g-reater 
but  not  indefinitely.  As  the  water  rises  in  B  the 
pressure  is  increased  by  the  force  of  gravity  and  this 
pressure  continues  to  increase.  The  greater  the 
pressure  the  greater  the  volume  of  water  that  can  be 
forced  throug-h  a  given  orifice  in  a  given  time,  hence 
a  point   is   soon    reached   at   which  the  quantity  of 


100  CIRCULATORY  TISSUES 

water  forced  out  throug^h  the  tube  D  is  just  equal  to 
the  amount  forced  in  from  the  bulb.  The  floats  now 
remain  stationary.  If  the  bulb  is  now  operated  twice 
as  fast,  the  float  in  B  will  again  rise,  thus  increasing- 
the  pressure  and  forcing-  more  water  out  through  the 
tube  D  in  a  given  time. 

The  conditions  under  which  the  heart  and  other 
blood  vessels  act  are  not  very  different  from  those 
represented  by  this  apparatus.  The  bulb  corresponds 
to  the  heart,  the  cylinder  B  and  the  end  of  the  tube 
D  attached  to  it,  the  arteries,  the  stop-cock  E  to  the 
capillaries  and  the  cylinder  A  and  the  end  of  the 
tube  D  attached  to  it,  the  veins.  "When  the  ventricles 
contract,  they  throw  blood  into  the  arteries  and, 
should  the  contractions  be  slow  enough,  the  blood 
would  gain  equilibrium  and  the  pressure  would  be 
the  same  in  both  veins  and  arteries.  This  is  not  the 
case,  however,  for  more  blood  is  thrown  into  the 
arteries  than  can  immediately  run  through  the  capil- 
laries into  the  veins,  consequently  the  pressure  is  in- 
creased in  the  arteries  and  that  in  the  veins  slightly 
decreased.  These  conditions  will  continue,  the  pres- 
sure increasing  in  the  arteries,  until  finally  a  point 
will  be  reached  at  which  the  pressure  in  the  arteries 
is  sufficient  to  force  just  as  muth  blood  through  the 
capillaries  as  is  thrown  in  by  the  heart  in  a  given 
time.  The  pressure  becomes  so  constant  that  the 
stream  through  the  capillaries  is  continuous  and 
there  is  no  pulse  in  the  veins. 

The  apparatus  may  be  varied  and  yet  show  the 
same  principle.  Instead  of  the  cyclinders  use  glass 
tubing  to  represent  the  veins  and  elastic  rubber   tub- 


CIRCULATORY  TISSUES  101 

ing-  for  the  arteries.  The  capillaries  may  be  repre- 
sented by  using-  a  piece  of  g-lass  tubing*  into  which  a 
spong-e  has  been  placed.  The  pressure  in  this  latter 
apparatus  will  need  to  be  shown  by  connecting  with 
each  tube  a  glass  U  tube  filled  with  mercury.  The 
arterial  pressure  may  also  be  shown  by  using-  an 
elastic  rubber  bag"  to  represent  the  arteries  and  when 
the  water  is  pumped  into  this  it  will  expand.  The 
last  apparatus  described  is  more  complicated  than 
the  first  and  is  no  more  satisfactory. 


RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRA- 
TION. 


RESPIRATORY  TISSUES. 

la.     The     org-ans    of     respiration    and   their   struc- 
ture.     2,    193;  a,    380;  lO,  503;  6,  202;  5, 
105;  24,  297,  303;  17.  341;   14,  120;  13,  I, 
180;  11,  II,  554;  12,  433;  25,  202. 
lb.     The  air  passag-es.     2,  194;  6,  203. 
Ic.     The  trachea. 
Id.     Structure. 
2c.     Bronchial  tubes  and  their  branches. 
3c.     Alveoli. 
2b.     The  lungs.     2,  196;  6,  208;   14,  127. 
Ic.     Structure. 

2c.     Extent  of  surface.     2,197. 
3c.     The  pleura.     2,197. 
Id.     Pleurisy.     2,  198. 
3b.     Thorax  or  chest.     2,  200;  3,  386;  13,   T,   201, 
203. 
Ic.     Structure. 

Id.     Chief  muscles  of.     10,  513;  15,    372;  13, 
I,  200. 
2c.     Directions  in  which  it  can  expand.  2,  200. 
RESPIRATION. 

la.     By   what    mechanism    produced?      2.     204;    6, 
211;  15,  370;  13,  I,  198;  12,  438;  25,  208. 
2a.     Inspiration. 
3a.     Expiration. 


RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRATION  108 

4a.     Sounds  produced  in  respiration.     2,  203;  5,  121; 

24,  317;  13,  I,  206. 
5a.     Capacity  of  the  lung-s.     2,   199;  3,   391;  6,   210; 

24,  318;  13,  I,  191;  25,  211. 
lb.     Tidal  air. 

2b.     Complemental  air. 
3b.     Residual  air. 
4b.     Total  capacity. 
6a.     Amount  of  air  breathed  daily.     2,  199. 
7a.     Effect  of  respiration  on  the  circulation.     3,  394; 

10,  555;  24,  319. 
8a.     Chemistry  of  respiration.     2,   207;   3,   389;    10, 
517;  6,  215;  12,  449;  25,  215. 
lb.     Chang-es  that  have  occurred   in  breathed  air. 
2,  208;  6,  216;  11,  II,  379;  25,  217. 
Ic.     In  temperature. 
2c.     In  moisture. 
3c.     In  g-ases.     24,  321. 

Id.     Chemical  composition  of.     17,  367. 
le.     Pure  air. 

2e.     Breathed  air.      3,  400;  6,  220;  15,    381; 
13,  I,  210,  215;  11,  II,  379. 
2d.     Quantity  of  air  breathed.     15,  378. 
4c.     Chang-es  in   the   blood.      11,    II,    382;    12, 
451;  25,  223. 
Id.     Oxyg-en  taken  up  by  the  blood.     24,    327; 

25,  22k 

le.     By  what  process  possible? 
2d.     Carbon  dioxide  g-iven  off.     25,  229. 
9a.     Nervous  control  of  respiration.     2,  205;   3,    414- 
425;  10,  563;  6,  213;  24,  353-362;  17,  360; 


104         RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRATION 

15,  393;  14,  145;  11,  II,  615;  12,  475;  35, 

231. 
.lua.     Special  respirator}^  movements.     15,   406;    17, 

353;  10,  561;  6,  218;  12,  507. 
11a.     Artificial  respiration.     10,  553;  13,   I,   229;  6, 

393. 
12a.     Hyg-iene  of  respiration.  3,  392;  5,  120;  25,  206. 
lb.     In  reference  to  clothing". 

2b.     Ventilation.     3L;3-1;35;    2,    213;    10,    547; 
6,  223;   13,  I,  231;  25,  213. 
Ic.     Amount  of  air  needed.     Why?    2,  212. 
2c.      Poisons  in  breathed  air. 

Id.     Is  carbon  dioxide  poisonous? 
3c.     Best  methods  of  ventilating*. 
3b.     Asphyxia.     6,  381;  24,  350. 
4b.     Consumption,     (i,  222. 
Ic.     Cause.     13,  I,  231. 
2c.     How  best  g-uard  ag^ainst? 
5b.     Effect  of  tobacco  on  air  passages.     6,  232. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


THE  AIR  PASSAGES  AND  THE  LUNGS. 

Materials.  Get  from  a  butcher  the  heart  and 
lung's  of  a  calf,  sheep  or  hog",  having-  directed 
that  no  cuts  be  made  on  either.  The  heart  is 
not  necessary  but  if  cut  off  the  lung's  are  liable 
to  be  injured.  Have  ready  small  pieces  of  the 
trachea  of  a  cat  or  other  small  mammal  that 
have  been  hardened  in  .2  per  cent,  chromic  acid 
for  10-14  days  and  then  alcohol  (see  appendix 
for  methods  of  hardening).     Lung  tissue   bar- 


RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRATION         105 

dened  in  chromic   acid,    the   air   spaces   them- 
selves having-  been  filled  with  the  fluid. 

1.  Examine  the  windpipe  or  trachea  and 
notice  its  ring-s.  Do  the}^  continue  all  around 
the  tube  or  are  they  thinner  next  to  the 
oesophag-us?  Feel  of  the  rings  and  determine 
their  structure.  Remove  one  of  the  upper 
ring-s,  trim  awa}-  the  surrounding-  tissues  and 
make  a  drawing-  of  the  ring-. 

2.  Trace  the  trachea  to  where  it  branches  into 
the  rig-ht  and  left  broiicliial  tubes.  Are 
the  branches  similar  to  the  main  tube? 

3.  Blow  up  the  lung-s  in  the  same  manner  as  de- 
scribed on  pag-e  87  and  notice: 

a.  The  lobes  of  the  lung-s. 

b.  The      covering-    or    pleura.      In    some 

places  this  membrane  may  be  pushed 
away  from  the  lung's  by  the  pressure 
of  the  air. 

4.  Dissect  out  one  of  the  bronchial  tubes  and  a 
few  of  its  branches  as  far  as  you  can.  What 
finall}^  becomes  of  these  tubes? 

5.  Cut  cross  sections  of  the  hardened  trachea  and 
observe: 

■a.  The  inner  mucous  coat  covered  with  cil- 
iated cells.  Compare  these  with 
what  3'ou  saw  in  the  frog-. 

b.  Beneath  the  mucous  coat   the  submu- 

cous. 

c.  Joining-  the  submucous   coat   the   incom- 

plete riug-  of  hyaliue  cartilage. 


106         RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRATION 

d.     The  outer   fibrous    coat   in   which   is 
imbedded  the  ring-  of  cartilage. 

6.  Cut  long-itudinal  sections  of  the  trachea,  stain 
in  hsematoxylin  and  compare  them  with  the 
last. 

7.  Cut  sections  of  hardened  lung-,  stain  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  trachea  and  observe  the 
alveoli  as  seen  in  section,  as  well  as  the 
smaller  air  tubes.  If  a  piece  of  an  injected 
lung  be  used  the  blood  vessels  maj^  also  be 
disting-uished. 

8.  Review  experiment  16,  pag-e  68. 

9.  Take  a  deep  breath  and  determine  in  how 
many  directions  the  chest  may  expand. 

RESPIRAIION. 

Materials.  A  thermometer;  a  few  six 
ounce  wide  mouthed  bottles;  g-lass  tubing-;  a 
half  g-allon  fruit  jar;  the  apparatus  shown  in 
figure  4. 

1.  Breath  on  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  and 
notice: 

a.  The  film  which   coats  the  bulb.      What 

is  it? 

b.  The  effect  on  the  mercury  in  the  ther- 

mometer. 

2.  Breathe  on  the  window  pane,  the  polished 
blade  of  a  knife  or  other  smooth  surface  and 
notice  the  moisture  that  condenses. 

3.  Polish  a  piece  of  g-lass  then  breathe  on  it 
several  times.  Allow  the  g-lass  to  dry  then 
examine  to  see  if  a  film  has  been  formed  on  it. 
What  can  this  film  be? 


RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRATION 


10' 


Kxhale  several  times  througli  a  tube  into  a 
clean  bottle  then  cork  up  the  bottle  and  stand 
it  in  a  warm  place  for  a  day.  After  this  time 
open  the  bottle  and  ascertain  whether  or  not 
any  odor  is  g-iven  off  from  the  bottle.  What 
explanation? 

Repeat  experiment  14,  pag-e  11  with  the  lime 
water.     Review  experiment  13  on  page  11. 

Review  experiment  8c  on  pag"e  86. 


FIG.    4. 

7.  Make  the  apparatus  shown  in  fig-ure  4  from 
a  bell  jar  with  a  hole  in  the  top,  or  if  such  a 
jar  is  not  at  hand  a  larg-e  bottle  whose  bottom 
^has  been  cut  off  will  answer.  A  is  a  glass  tube 
passing-  through  a  rubber  cork  at  F,  to  the 
lower  end  of  which  is  fastened  a  toy  rubber 
baloon  C.     B  is  a  tube  opening*  on  the   inside 


lOS         RESPIRATORY  TISSUES  AND  RESPIRATION 

of  the  jar  at  one  end  and  the  other  end  under 
the  water  in  the  dish  E.  D  is  a  rubber  disc 
tied  to  the  base  of  the  jar  and  to  the  center  of 
which  is  fastened  a  string-.  The  cork  at  F  and 
the  rubber  disc  D  must  be  so  placed  that  they 
will  admit  no  air.  Pull  down  on  the  string-  H 
and  notice  the  effect  on  the  baloon  C.  Why 
does  it  expand?  Notice  also  the  effect  on  the 
water  in  E.  Why?  The  latter  illustrates  why 
the  blood  rushes  more  rapidly  into  the  chest 
cavity  during  an  inspiration  than  at  other 
times.  D  illustrates  roughly  the  action  of  the 
diaphragm  in  the  body.  If  the  to}^  baloon  can 
not  be  had  the  lung-s  of  some  small  mammal 
such  as  a  rat  may  be  used  for  C. 
8.  A  harmless  but  very,  instructive  experiment 
may  be  made  by  putting-  a  mouse  or  sparrow 
into  a  half  gallon  fruit  jar  the  lid  of  which  has 
two  glass  tubes  cemented  into  it.  One  of  the 
tubes  should  be  short  but  the  other  should 
reach  to  the  bottom  of  the  jar  or  nearly  so. 
Close  the  jar  then  exhale  through  the  long- 
tube  for  some  time  until  the  mouse  beg-ins  to 
become  drowsy.  Now  allow  fresh  air  to  flow 
into  the  jar.  What  effect?  If  an  oxygen  tank 
is  handy  let  a  little  pure  oxyg-en  into  the  jar. 
Effect?  Artificial  carbon  dioxide  may  be  used 
instead  of  breathing-  into  the  jar  but  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  allow  the  experiment  to  go  too 
far.  What  conclusions  are  to  be  drawn  from 
the  experiment? 


EXCRETORY  TISSUES. 


EXCRETORY  TISSUES. 

la.     Org-ans  concerned  in.  2,   215;  6,  235;  25,  385. 
lb.     Urinary  org^ans. 
Ic.     Kidne3^s. 
Id.     Location. 
2d.     Shape. 
3d.     Structure.     24,  393;  12,  511. 

le.     Gross  structure.   2,  217;  3,  429;  o,    161; 
6,  257;  17,  421;  14,  230;  13,  I,  479. 
If.     As  seen  on  the  exterior. 
Ig*.     Covering-. 
2g'.     The  ureter. 

3g-.     Renal  blood  vessels.     24,  397;  13, 
,     I,  484. 
2f.     As  seen  in    long-itudinal   section.       3, 
429. 
Ig-.     The  hilus. 
2g'.     Pelvis  of  the  ureter. 
3g-.     Calices.     3,  429. 
4g-.     Cortical  portion. 
5g-.     Medullar}^  portion. 
6g-.     Pyramids  of  Malpig-hi. 
7g-.     Papillae. 
Sg-.     Pyramids  of  Ferrein. 
2e.     Minute  structure.      2,  218;   3,   429;   5, 
163;  10,  189;  11,  II,  665;  12,  514;  14, 
232;  13,  I,  481. 
If.     Uriniferous  tubules.     13,  I,  482. 


110  EXCRETORY  TISSUES 

Ig".     Malpig-hiati  capsules.     12,  516. 
2g.     Trace  the  tubules. 
3g-.     Physiolog-y  of.     3,  435. 
2f.     Blood  capillaries.     10,  195. 
Ig".     Distribution.     Why? 
4d.     The  urine.     2,  219;  3,  432;  lO,   190;   17, 
426;  11,  II,  687;  15,  426;   13,   528;  14, 
237;   13,  I,  487. 
le.     Amount. 

2e.     Specific  g-ravity.     13,  I,  488. 
3e.     Composition.     3,  433;  17,  431;   11,   II, 
679;  24,  398;  15,   422;    12,   524;    14, 
237;  13,  I,  490. 
5d.     General  physiolog-y  of.     3,   435. 
6d.     Nervous  connection   with.      3,   439;    17, 
439,  24,  428;  13,  I,  531. 
2c.     Urinary  bladder  and  ureters.     14,   243;  13, 
I,  538. 
Id.     Structure. 
2d.     Physiolog"y  of. 
3c.     Hyg-iene  of. 

Id.     Importance  of  healthy  kidneys. 
2d.     Common  diseases  of.     14,  242. 

le.     Causes. 
3d.     Effect  of  stimulants  on.     6,  261-262. 
2b.     The  skin.     2,   220;    5,    151;    6,    237;    11,    II, 
719;  24,  378;  12,  551;  14,  244;   13,   I,   543. 
Ic.     Of  what  consist? 

Id.     Epidermis  or  cuticle.     2,  220;  6,   238;  24, 
380. 

le.     Structure  of. 

2e.     Pigment  in.     5,  152. 
2d.     Dermis.     2,  222. 


EXCRETORY  TISSUES  111 

le.     Other  names  for. 
2e.     Structure. 

If.     Cotmective  tissue. 
2f.     Blood  vessels.     *^4,  386. 
3f.     Lymphatics.     34,  386. 
4f.     Pipill^.     2,  223;  5,  153. 
5f,     Nerve  fibers. 
3d.     Hairs.     3,  444;  6,  239;  34,  381;  12,   557; 
14,  246;  13,  I,  547. 
le.     Structure. 
If.     Parts  of. 
2e.     Object  of. 
3e.     Hyg-iene  of. 

If.     Gray  hairs,  dandruff,  bald  heads. 
4d.     Nails.     2,225;  3,445;   6,    241;  24,    380; 
14,  246;  13,  I,  546. 
le.     Structure. 
If.     Parts  of. 
2e.     Object  of. 
3e.     Hygiene  of.     6,  252. 
5d.     Glands  of  the  skin.     2,  226;  13,  I,  550. 
le.     Sweat  glands.     2,  226;  3,   446;   5,   154; 
6,  242;  11,  n,  723;  24,  385;  12,  555; 
14,  248. 
If.     Location. 
2f.     Structure. 

3f.     Secretion.        10,   198;   24,    388;    12, 
416. 
Ig.     Composition.     5,  156;  6,   243;  14,    , 

249. 
2g.     Amount  of.     11,  H,  728;  12,   559; 
14,  249. 


113  EXCRETORY  TISSUES 

3g".     Object  of. 

Ih.       To    regulate    temperature.      5, 

157;  0,  244. 
2h.     To  remove  wastes, 
4g-.     Nervous  control  of.  5,    155;  3,   447; 
14,250;  13,  I,  554. 
2e.     Sebaceous  or  oil  glands.     2,  227;  .*5,  448; 
5,  156;  10,  197;   11,  II,  724;  !^-l,  384; 
12,  556;  14,  248. 
If.     Location. 
2f.     Secretion.     24,  391. 
Ig*.     Object  of. 
2c.     Absorbing  power  of  the  skin.     (>,  246. 
3c.     Protective  function  of.     15,  413;  13,  I,  551. 
4c.     Respiration  through  the  skin.    12,  461;  15, 

415;  13,  I,  551;  24,  392. 
5c.     Hygiene  of  the  skin,     2,  228;  3,  448;  6,  247. 
Id.     Bathing. 

le.     Kinds  of  baths  and  the  purpose  of  each. 
2d.     Clothing.     6,  223. 
3d.     Effect  of  sunshine.     5,  1()1. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 

THE  KIDNEYS. 

Materials.  Get  from  the  butcher  some 
kidne3's  from  any  animal,  taking  care  to  have 
the  tissues  immediately  surrounding  these 
organs  preserved  with  them.  Harden  slices 
of  a  small  mammalian  kidne}',  such  as  that  of 
a  rat,  in  Perenyi's  fluid  or  alcohol,  also   pieces 


EXCRETORY  TISSUES  113 

of  bladder  in  the  same  manner  but  the  latter 
organ  should  be  distended  with  the  hardening- 
fluid. 

1.  Gross  Structure.  Review  your  drawings 
made  for  observation  12,  page  67. 

2..  Observe  the  capsule  of  peritoneum  which 
surrounds  the  kidney. 

3.  Notice  the  shape  of  the  kidney,  especially  an 
indentation  on  one  edge,  the  liiluin.  Observe 
the  following  tubes  which  connect  with  the 
kidney  at  the  hilum: 

a.  The  ureter,  the  tube  which   carries  the 

urine  from  the  kidney  to  the  bladder. 

b.  The  renal  artery  which  supplies  the 

kidney  with  blood. 

c.  The  renal  vein  which  carries  the  blood 

from  the  kidney. 

4.  Observe  the  color  of  the  kidney. 

5.  Remove  the  capsule  then  split  the  kidney 
open  carefully  along  the  convex  edge,  cutting 
deep  enough  to  reach  the  cavity,  the  pelvis, 
where  the  ureter  begins.  With  a  broom  straw 
or  other  small  body  probe  into  the  pelvis  and 
trace  the  ureter. 

6.  Cut  the  kidney  completely  open  then  observe 
the  following: 

a.  The  color  of   the   membrane   lining   the 

pelvis. 

b.  The  outer  or  corticle  portion  of  the 

kidney, 
c     The  inner  or  medullary  portion  which 
appears  somewhat  striated. 


114  EXCRETORY  TISSUES 

d.  Observe  in  the  mudullary  portion  the 
pyramids  of  Malpigiii  which 
project  as  papillae  into  the  pelvis. 
Can  you  detect  a  small  hole  in  the 
end  of  each  pyramid?  Press  on  the 
kidney  while  looking-  to  see  if  any 
water  oozes  out. 

7.  Make  a  careful  drawing-  of  one  half  of   the 

kidney. 

8.  Make  a  transverse  cut  across  one  of  the 
halves  of  the  kidney  and  observe  the   cut   end. 

Draw. 

1.  Minute  Structure.  Make  long-itudinal 
sections  of  the  hardened  kidney  mentioned 
under  materials,  stain  with  ha^matoxylin  and 
observe  under  low  power  the  cortex,  pyramids, 
Malpighian  capsules  and  tubules. 

2.  Under  liig-h  power  observe  the  tubules  more 
closely  and  try  to  verify  the  fact  that  each 
Malpighian  capsule  is  the  starting  point  of 
one  of  the  uriniferous  tubules. 

3.  If  sections  from  a  kidney  whose  blood  vessels 
have  been  injected  with  colored  g-elatine  can 
be  had,  examine  one  for  the  blood  capillaries. 
The  capillary  network  found  in  the  Malpig-hian 
capsules  is  known  as  the  glomerulus. 

4.  Make  cross  sections  of  the  wall  of  the  blad- 
der, stain  with  hecmatoxylin  and  observe  the 
following: 

a.  Externally,  an  outer  fibrous  coat. 

b.  A  muscular  coat  whose  fibers  run  in 

many  directions.     What  is  the  func- 
tion of  the  muscles? 


EXCRETORY   TISSUES  115 

c.     A  subniiicous  coat  on  which  lies  the 

inner   iiiucuous    coat,   the   latter 

folded    and    lined     with    epithelial 

cells. 
THE  SKIN. 

1.  Observe  the  skin  which  may  be  rolled  off  of 
the  body  when  taking-  a  bath.  What  portion 
of  the  skin  is  it? 

2.  Examine  the  hardened  portion  of  the  skin  on 
the  inside  of  the  hands  or  feet.  Do  these  parts 
bleed  when  a  thin  slice  is  shaved  off?  Is  there 
any  pain  when  such  cutting-  is  done?  Why? 
Where  on  the  body  is  the  epidermis  thickest? 
Where  thin?  Under  what  conditions  will  the 
epidermis  become  much  thicker  than  usual? 

3.  Polish  a  piece  of  glass  then  press  the  tip  of  a 
fing-er  on  it.  What  kind  of  a  print  is  made? 
Try  other  fing-ers.  Examine  the  palm  of  the 
hand  for  similar  ridges,  the  papillae. 

4.  Harden  a  piece  of  the  skin  of  some  animal, 
preferably  human  skin  if  it  can  be  had,  by  any 
of  the  methods  mentioned  in  the  appendix,  cut 
sections  and  observe  the  following-: 

a.  The  epidermis, composed  of  many  layers 

of  flattened  cells  on  the  surface  and 
thicker  cells  beneath.  If  the  section 
be  from  the  human  skin  the  elevated 
papillae  may  be  seen,  especially  if 
it  be  from  the  palm  of  the  hand  or 
the  inner  surface  of  the  finger. 

b.  The    clerniis    or    cutis     beneath    the 

epidermis  and  composed  of  connec- 
tive tissue. 


116  EXCRETORY  TISSUES 

c.  In  the  dermis  numerous  glands  which 
may  be  either  sweat  or  sebaceous 
g-lands. 

5.  Review  experiments?,  9  and  10,  pages  17  and 
18,  on  hairs. 

6.  Make  sections  of  a  piece  of  skin  which  con- 
tains hairs,  stain  with  heematoxylin  and  ob- 
serve the  hair  follicles  and  the  sectioned  hairs. 
Note  the  oil  glands,  the  papillce  from  which 
the  hairs  grow,  the  fibrous  sheathes  which  line 
the  follicle  and  the  epidermis  which  covers  the 
root  and  forms  the  hair  when  mature. 


NERVE  TISSUES. 


NERVE  TISSUES. 

la.     Why  need  a  nervous  system?     2,  230. 

2a.     How  do  we  differ  from  a   collection   of   organs? 

2,  231. 
3a.         What  is  coordination?     2,  231;  13,    790;    11, 

III,  1082. 
4a.     Structure  of  the  nervous  S3^stem.      13,    II,    648; 
29,  149;  26,  123;  37;  17,  522;   19;   39;   40; 
14. 
lb.     Nerve  trunks.     2,  232;  3,  158;  25,  410;  14. 
Ic.     What  and  where  found? 
2c.     Central  portion.     3,  158, 
3c.     Distal  portion,     3,  158. 
4c.     Structure. 
Id.     Covering-. 

2d.     Nerve  fibers.     3,  176;  6,  265;  14. 
le.     White  fibers.     2,  244;  25,  433. 
If.     Primitive  sheath, 
2f,     Medullary  sheath. 
3f.     Axis  cylinder. 
4f.     Nodes. 
5f.     Nuclei. 
2e.     Gray  fibers.     2,  245;  3,  178. 

If.     How   like   and   different    from   white 

fibers? 
2f.     Where  found? 
2b.     Nerv^e  centers.     2,  234;  3,  159,  181;   25,    410; 
14. 


118  NERVE  TISSUES 

Ic.     What  are  the}'? 

2c.     Cerebro-spinal  center.     3,  160. 

Id.     Brain.     2,  234,  238;  5,  253;   6,   268;   12, 
731;  11,  III,   1009,    1024;    25,  417;   19; 
15,  498;  11. 
le.     Membranes  covering-.     6,   273;  25,  412; 
18,  704;  19. 
If.     Locate  and  describe  each. 
2e.     Main  divisions. 

If.     Fore-brain.     3,  166. 

Ig-.     Cerebrum.     G,    270;    18,    716;    19; 
21,  517;  11. 
Ih.     Location. 
2h.     Size  as  compared  with  the  other 

parts  of  the  brain. 
3h.     Hemispheres. 
4h.     Convolutions.     25,  418. 
5h.     Olfactory  lobes. 
6h.     Structure. 
li.     Gross. 

2i.     Minute.      13,  II,   849;  11,  III, 
1103;  18,  744;   19;    24,  489; 
14. 
7h.     Function,  in  general. 
2g-.     Other  parts. 
2f.     Mid-brain. 
Ig-.     Location. 

2g.     Structures  on  the   dorsal   side.     3, 
167, 
3f.     Hind-brain. 

Ig.     Cerebellum.     «,   271;  18,  747;   19; 
21,  514;   14. 
Ih.     Location. 


NERVE  TISSUES  119 

2h.     Lobes  of. 
3h.     Size. 
4h.     Structure, 
li.     Gross. 

2i.     Minute.     11 ,  III,  1097;  1  8,  751; 
19;  24,  489;  14. 
5h.     Function,  in  g-eneral. 
2g.     Pons   Varolii.     18,    714;    11);    24, 
508;  14. 
lb.     Ivocation. 
3g.     Medulla.     (>,  273;  12,  736;  11,  III, 
1009;  18,  708;  19;  24,    503;   14. 
lb.     Location. 
3e.     Ventricles  of  tbe  brain.      3,    168;    25, 
422;  18,  753;  19. 
If.     Locate  and  describe  each. 
4e.     The  brain  as  seen  in  section.     3,  170. 
If.     Corpus  callosum. 
2f.     Septum  lucidum. 
3f.     Optic  thalami. 
4f.     Optic  commissure. 
5f.     Pituitary  body. 

Ig-.     Theories  concerning-. 
6f.     Pineal  body. 

Ig-.     Theories  concerning-. 
7f.     Inner  view  of  the  cerebellum. 

8f.     Other    common  structures   not   men- 
tioned above. 
5e.     Blood  vessels  of  the  brain.     5,  263;  12, 

881;  11,  III,  1235;  14. 
6e.     Weig-ht  of  the  brain.     3,  166;   10,   715; 
25,417;  24,  541. 


120  NERVE  TISSUES 

7e.     Cranial  nerves.     2,  240;  3,  172,   207;   5, 
258;  6,  275;  13,  II,  717;  25,  425;  18, 
754;  19;  24,  545;  14, 
If.     Name,    locate   and  state   function  of 
each  pair. 
8e.     Growth  of  the  brain,   2,   260;    10,    715, 
724;  36. 
2d.      Spinal  cord.     2,  235;  3,  161,  181;   6,   277; 
12,  671;  11,   III,    915;    25,    414;    18, 
695;  19;  37;  24,  495;  15,  480;  14. 
le.     Location. 
2e.     Diameter  and  length. 
3e.     Knlarg-ements. 
4e.     Weig-ht.     10,  723. 
5e.     Covering-s. 

6e.     Gross  structure.     3,   162;  12,   675;   14. 
If.     White  and  g"ray  matter. 
2f.     Fissures. 
3f.     Central  canal. 
7e.     Minute  structure.     3,  181;  24,  486;  14. 
If.     Arrangement  of  the  white  fibers. 
2f.     Arrangement  of  the  gray  fibers. 
3f.     Arrang-ement  of  the   nerve   cells.     2, 
245;  10,  607. 
Ig.     Minute  structure.     3,   179;  6,   264; 

25,  431;  14. 
2g.     Function.      17,541. 
3g.     Nutrition.     lO,  626. 
4f.     The  neuroglia.     3,  180;  25,  439. 
3c.     Spinal  ganglia  and  nerves.     (>,  278;  13,    II, 
751;  25,  415;  18,  789;  19;   24,   545;    14. 
Id.     Location. 


NERVE  TISSUES  121 

2d.     Number  of  pairs  of  nerves. 

le.     How  joined  to  the  cord? 

3d.     Structure  and  connections  of  the  gang-lia. 

3,  184. 

le.     Sympathetic  S3'stem.   2,  243;  3,  175;   6, 

286;  13,  II,  V56;  34,  559;  14. 

4c.     Sporadic  gang-lia.     3,  176. 

Id.     Location. 

2d.     Probable  function. 

5a.     General  ph3'siolog-3^  of.     38;  40. 

lb.     Properties  of  nervous  tissue.     3,  180. 

2b.     Location  of  feeling-  and  pain. 

3b.     What  is  a  sensation?     5,  267,  269. 

4b.     Nature  of  nervous  impulse-     2,    247;    3,    203; 
25,  443. 

Ic.     Rate  of  transmission  of  .  3,  206. 

2c.     Compare  with  electricit3\ 

5b.     Nerve  action.     2,  248,  258. 

Ic.     Motor  stimuli. 

Id.      Relation    to    the    anterior    roots    of   the 

spinal  nerves.     17,  545. 

2c.     Sensory  stimuli. 

Id.     Relation   to     the   posterior   roots   of   the 

spinal  nerves.     17,  546. 

3c.     Location  in   the   spinal   cord   of   the   motor 

nerve  cells. 

4c.     Location  in  the  spinal   cord   of  the  sensory 

nerve  cells. 

5c.     Where  are  the  voluntary  motor  centers? 

Id.     Explain  voluntary  movements.     12,  808; 

11,  III,  1119. 

6c.     Classification  of  nerve  centers.     25,  447. 

Id.     Reflex  (see  special  physiolog*}').    3,  188. 


122  NERVE  TISSUES 

2d.     Conscious  centers,     o,  189. 
3d.     Automatic  centers.     3,   189. 
4d.     Relay  and  junction  centers.     3,189. 
7c.     Inter  communication  of  nerv^e  centers,  o,  207. 
8c.     Classification  of  nerve  fibers.       3,    193;  "^o, 
445. 
Id.     Peripheral. 

le.     Afferent.     2,  252;  17,  524. 
If.     Define. 

2f.     Sensory,      reflex,      excito-motor,      in- 
hibitory. 
2e.     Efferent.     2,  252;   17,  525. 
If.     Define. 

2f.     Motor,  vasomotor,  secretory,  trophic, 
inhibitory. 
2d.     Intercentral. 

le.     Exciting",  inhibitory.     3,    190. 

9c.     Nerve  stimuli.      13,11,    658;    25,   440;    17, 
527. 
Id.     General.     3,   195. 

le.     Define,  illustrate  and  state  kinds. 
2d.     Special.     3,  196. 

le.     Define,  illustrate  and  state  kinds. 
10c.     Explain  "specific  nerve  energies"  and  show 
that  all  nerves  are  physiolog^ically  alike. 
3,  197;  '^5,  441. 
lie.     Deg^eneration    of   nerve     fibers.      3,     209; 
'^5,  438. 
6a.     Special  physiology  of.     38;  40;  14. 
lb.     Of  nerve  centers,  in  g-eneral.     3,  294. 
2b.     Of  the  spinal  cord.     2,  254;  13,  II,  764. 

Ic.     As  a  conducting  organ.     3,  594;  0,279,  280; 
15,  487. 


NERVE  TISSUES  123 

2c.     As  a  reflex  center.      2,   252;  3,  600;  6,   28; 
1'^,  711;  15,  484. 
Id.     Illustrated  by  experiments  on  a  frog*. 
3c.     Its  connection  with  the  spinal  g-ang-lia. 
4c.     Phjsiolog-ical  explanation  of  reflex  action. 

10,  657. 
5c.     Time  required   for   reflex   movements.      3, 

608. 
6c.     How  acquire  reflex  movements? 
7c.     Value  of  reflex  action.     2,  259;  6,  284. 
8c.     Education  of  reflex  centers.     3,  605. 
9c.     Does  the  spinal  cord  think  or  feel?     3,    607. 
Id.     Proof  of  your  answer. 
3b.     The  brain.     3,  609;  15,  505;   14. 
Ic.     General  function. 

Id.     The  seat  of  consciousness. 
2d.     Effect   of   removing-  the    cerebrum    from 
birds.     1^,784;   13,11,   844;     11,    III, 
1072;   15,  500. 
2c.     The  medulla  oblong-ate.     2,  255;  3,  610;   5, 
263;  13,  II,  806;  25,  445;  15,  542. 
Id.     Minute  structure.     12,  799. 
2d.     Special  function. 

le.     As  a  connection  between  the  brain  and 

spinal  cord. 
2e.     Seat  of  relay  and  junction  centers. 
3e.     Reflex  and  automatic  centers. 
4e.     Function  of  the  nerves  that  arise    here. 
'3c,     Cerebellum,  and  pons  Varolii.      2,    258;    3, 
613;   14. 
Id.     Special  function.      5,   263;   25,  457;  15, 
'541. 


134  NERVE  TISSUES 

le.     Effect  of  removing"  the  cerebellum    from 

birds.      13,  II,  897. 
2e.     Function   in   maintaining    equilibrium. 
3,  614. 
4c.     Mid-brain.     3,  616;  13,  II,  885;  25,  459;  14. 

Id.     Function. 
5c.     Fore-brain     (cerebrum).     3,  618. 

Id.     Brain  localization.     2,  257;  10,  682,  696; 
13,  II,  875;    11,  III,  1119;  25,  229,  433; 
15,  521,  530. 
le.     Function  of  the  cortex.     2,  256;  3,   622; 

5,  259. 
2e.     Nerve  connections  in  the  cerebrum.   10, 

647,  668;  12,  748;  15,  518. 
3e.     Locate  some  of  the  known  motor  aries. 
If.     Illustrate  by  aphasia.     3,628. 
6c.     The  brain  as  a  reflex  center.     6,  284. 
7c.     Mental  habits.     2,  260;  3,  631. 
Id.     Explanation. 

7a.     What  is  the  explanation  of  old  age?  10,  742. 
8a.     Comparative  physiology  of  the  nervous  system. 

10,  703. 
9a.     Development  of  the  nervous   system.     24,    477; 

15,  542. 
10a.     Hygiene  of.     2,  261;  6,  288. 
lb.     Need  of  rest.     (>,  288. 
2b.     Sleep.     6,  290;  10,  739;  25,  465. 
Ic.     What  is  it? 
2c.     Why  necessary? 
3c.     Amount  required. 
3b.     Effect  of  stimulants   on   the   nervous   system. 
16,  294;  5,  274. 


NERVE  TISSUES  125 


4b.     Causes  of  apoplexy  and  paralysis. 
5b.     Hypnotism.     25,  467. 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


NERVE  TISSUES. 

Materials.  A  fresh  sheep's  head,  which 
may  be  obtained  from  the  butcher;  two  frogs;  a 
saw;  four  per  cent,  formalin  solution;  pieces  of 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord  hardened  in  formalin; 
carmine  stains  and  acetic  acid. 

1.  The  brain.  With  a  fine  saw  make  cuts  along- 
each  side  of  the  sheep's  head,  across  the  face 
and  across  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  with  a 
file  or  other  strong-  object  pry  o&  the  top  of  the 
skull.  The  cutting  must  be  done  with  care 
in  order  that  the  brain  may  not  be  injured. 
As  the  top  of  the  skull  is  removed  observe: 

a.  The  tough  membrane  which  lines  it,  the 

dura  mater. 

b.  That  the  surface  of  the  dura  mater   has 

a  glossy  appearance  on  account  of 
being  covered  with  the  very  thin 
arachiioid-^menibrane. 

c.  The  membrane*  covering  the  brain,   the 

pia  mater.  This  contains  blood 
vessels  and  its  surface  is  covered 
with  the  arachnoid  membrane. 

2.  Place  the  head  for  a  day  in  a  jar  which 
contains  a  solution  of  4  per  cent,  formalin.  The 
solution  will  harden  the  brain  and  then  it  can  be 
more   easily   removed.       After   hardening,  lift 


126  NERVE  TISSUES 

the  brain  very  g-entlj  and  cut  off  the  nerves  as 
near  the  skull  as  possible,  taking-  care  not  to 
tear  them  off  where  they  join  the  brain. 

3.  Observe  the  following-  parts  of  the  brain: 

a.  The  larg-e  cerebrum  which  constitutes 

the  main  portion  of  the  brain  and 
which  is  divided  into  two  lieiiii- 
splieres. 

b.  The  cerebellum,  back   and   somewhat 

beneath  the  cerebrum.  Notice  its 
surface. 

c.  The  medulla,  below  the  cerebellum. 

d.  On  the   under  side   of   the  cerebrum,  the 

olfactory  lobes. 

e.  Back  of   the   olfactory   lobes,  the   optic 

commissure,  from  which  the  optic 
nerves  pass  forwards  and  the  optic 
tracts  backwards. 

f.  The  pous  Varolii. 

g-.    The  stumps  of  the  cranial  nerves. 

4.  Trim  away  a  portion  of  the  pia  mater  and 
observe  the  convolutions  on  the  cerebrum. 
Pull  the  two  hemispheres  apart  and  observe 
the  white  portion  which  connects  them,  the 
corpus  callosum. 

5.  If  a  hardened  brain  is  not  at  hand  it  would 
be  better  to  put  the  brain  in  a  fresh  4  per  cent, 
formalin  solution  for  from  four  to  five  days 
until  it  has  hardened  more  completely,  then 
make  a  horizontal  cut  across  one  hemisphere 
of  the  cerebrum  and  notice: 

a.     The   J?ray    matter  which  covers  the 
surface  of  the  brain. 


NERVE  TISSUES  127 

b.     The  depth  of  the  convolutions. 

6.  If  the  cut  has  been  made  through  the  middle 
of  the  cerebral  hemisphere  some  of  the  ven- 
tricles should  be  seen. 

7.  Make  a  vertical  cut  through  the  cerebellum 
and  notice  the  nature  of  its  interior.  What  is 
its  color?     Draw. 

8.  Stain  a  small  piece  of  the  hardened  cortex 
of  the  cerebrum  for  24  hours  or  longer  in  borax 
carmine,  transfer  directlj-  to  100  cubic  centi- 
meters of  70  per  cent,  alcohol  to  which  has 
been  added  five  drops  of  strong  h3^droch]oric 
acid  and  allow  it  to  remain  in  the  acid  alcohol 
for  24  hours.  The  material  may  now  be  dehy- 
drated, imbedded  in  paraffin  and  cut.  Kxamine 
for  the  many  small  nerve  cells.  Material  hard- 
ened in  formalin  may  be  imbedded  and  sectioned 
before  staining,  and  the  sections  may  be  stained 
on  the  slide  for  a  few  moments  in  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  iodine  green  in  water.  Wash  in  water 
and  mount  in  glycerine  for  temporary  obser- 
vation. With  the  latter  stain,  the  nerve  pro- 
cesses are  fairly  well  shown. 

9.  Prepare  sections  of  the  cerebellum  in  the 
same  manner  as  directed  for  the  cerebrum  and 
observe: 

a.  The  outer  layer. 

b.  The  large  nerve  cells   of  Purkiiije 


*)  There  are  very  many  excellent  methods  of  demonstrating 
the  minute  structure  of  the  nervous  system  but  they  are  nearly  all 
too  complicated  for  the  beginner.  It  is  thought  that  the  few  di- 
rections here  given  will  answer  fairly  well  but  those  who  care  to  go 
more  into  details  should  consult  any  of  the  standard  text-books  on 
histology  (see  40  of  the  reference  list.) 


128  NERVE  TISSUES 

under  the  outer  la3'er  and  with 
mail}'  nerve  processes. 

c.     Beneath  the  nerve  cell  layer  a  granular 
layer. 

10.  If  there  are  any  preserved  brains  of  other 
mammals,  birds  or  other  animals  in  the  labora- 
tor}'  they  should  be  studied  and  compared  with 
the  one  just  mentioned.  Models  of  the  human 
brain  should  be  carefully  studied. 

1.  The  spinal  cord.  Make  a  cross  section  of 
the  hardened  spinal  cord  from  near  the  neck  of 
some  mammal  by  either  the  paraffin  or  the 
celloidin  method,  stain  in  borax  carmine  and 
observe  the  following-: 

a.  The  outer  coverings  of  the   cord.      How 

man}'  coats  are  shown? 

b.  The  anterior  and  posterior  median 

lissures.  Which  one  dips  down 
to  the  g"ray  matter? 

c.  The    H  shaped     gray   matter   with   its 

anterior  and  posterior  horns 
and  nerve  processes  extending  to  the 
surface  of  the  cord. 

d.  The  multipolar   nerve  cells  in  the 

anterior  horns   of  the  gray  matter. 

e.  The  gray  fibers,  the  fibers  which  make 

up  the  greater  portion  of  the  gray 
matter. 

f.  The  central  canal  in  the  middle  of  the 

cord. 

g.  The  ends  of  the  nerve  fibers  in  the  white 

portion  of  the  cord. 


NERVE  TISSUES  129 

2.  If  it  is  possible  to  have  sections  of  the  lower 
portion  of  the  cord,  compare  those  with  the 
ones  from  the  upper  portion. 

3.  Cut  pieces,  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  of  the  anterior  horn  of  the  spinal 
cord,  from  the  neck  of  a  cow,  place  it  in  borax 
carmine  and  allow  it  to  remain  for  two  or  three 
days.  Wash  away  the  stain  with  water  and 
then  add  glycerine.  Tease  the  colored  mass 
apart  and  mount  a  portion.  Examine  for 
nerve  cells.  Excellent  preparations  may  be 
obtained  by  this  method.  Glycerine  jelly  is 
good  for  making-  permanent  mounts. 

4.  Remove  a  short  piece  of  the  sciatic  nerve  from 
the  leg  of  a  frog,  put  it  on  a  dry  glass  slip, 
press  one  end  down  so  that  it  will  adhere  to  the 
slip  and  with  a  needle  fray  the  nerve  out  as  fine 
as  possible,  then  apply  a  drop  of  normal  salt 
solution  and  observe: 

a.  The  size  of  the  nerve  fibers. 

b.  The    second    or    inedullary    sheath 

which  is  apt  to  be  somewhat  wrin- 
kled. 

c.  In  places  where  the  medullary   sheath  is 

broken,     the      outer,       transparent 
primitive  sheath. 

5.  If  there  is  some  osmic  acid  in  the  laboratory 
take  another  piece  of  fresh  nerve  and  place  it 
in  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  the  acid,  where  it 
should  remain  for  several  hours.  Tease  on  a 
slide  in  water  or  glycerine  and  observe: 

a.     That   the   medullary     sheath   is  stained 
black. 


130  NERVE  TISSUES 

b.     The  numerous    nodes  of  Raiivitn*  at 
which  the  axis  cylinder  may  be 

seen  passing-  from  one  internode  to 
another. 

1.  Nervous  system  of  a  frog.  Place  a  frog*  in 
ajar  with  a  little  ether  and  let  it  remain  until 
dead.  Open  the  animal  along  the  abomen  and 
remove  the  viscera.  Observe  along-  each  side 
of  the  spinal  column  a  row  of  white  bodies,  the 
gaiig'lia,  also  the  nerves  which  go  to  the  hind 

limbs. 

2.  With   sharp  scissors  remove   the  top  of  the 

skull,  observe  the  brain  and  note: 

a.  In   front,     the  rather   larg-e   olfactory 

lobes. 

b.  Just   back    of    the    olfactory    lobes   the 

cerebral  lieniisplieres. 

c.  Following-  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  two 

rounded  bodies,  the  mid-brain. 

d.  The  small  cerebellum  just  back  of  the 

mid-brain. 

e.  The  medulla. 

1.  Reflex  action.  With  a  wire  destroy  the 
brain  of  a  frog-  then  close  the  hole  made  by  the 
wire  with  a  wooden  plug-,  so  that  there  will  not 
be  a  loss  of  blood.  Allow  the,  frog-  to  remain 
quiet  for  a  few  minutes  until  it  has  recovered 
from  the  shock  of  the  operation  then  perform 
the  following  experiments: 

a.  Compare  the  posture  of  a  live  frog-  with 

that  of  one  whose  brain  is  destroyed. 

b.  Pinch  a   toe   of  the  hind    foot.       What 

happens? 


NERVE  TISSUES  131 

c.  Pinch  the  skin  on  the  side  of  the  bod}-. 

Docs  the  frog  attempt  to  scratch    off 
the  irritating-  object? 

d.  Touch  the  frog's  side  with  strong  acetic 

acid  or  vinegar  and  observe   the  re- 
sult.    How  explain? 

e.  Trj  a  hot  wire  in  the  same  way  that  you 

did  the  acid. 

f.  Touch  the  toe  with  the  two  wires  from  a 

weak  induction  coil. 
2.         Run  a  wire  down  the  spinal   column  and  de- 
stroy the  spinal  cord  then   repeat   the   experi- 
ments just  indicated.     How  explain  the  result? 

1.  General  experimekts-  Find  the  sciatic 
nerves  of  the  frog,  which  go  to  its  hind  legs. 
Pinch  one.     Effect?     How  explain? 

2.  Why  does  a  person  wink  when  struck  at,  even 
if  he  knows  that  the  person  striking  will  not 
hit  him? 

3.  Tickle  the  inside  of  the  nose  and  what 
happens?     Explain. 

4.  When  we  hit  the  elbow  why  do  we  sometimes 
feel  pain  in  the  fingers? 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE. 


SPECIAL   SENSES. 

la.     In  g-eneral.     J^,  488;  25,  469;  17,  566;   2-4,   562; 

15,  548. 
2a.     Sensations.     2,  263;  3,  488;  (>,  307;  5,  284. 
lb.     General  or  common.     3,  490. 
2b.     Special. 
Ic.     Sig-ht. 

Id.     The  eye.     2,  265;  3,  504;  6,   321;   5,   301; 
25,  529;  10,  744;  11,    IV,   1-173;  14, 
343;  17,  586;  24,   579;    15,    560;    12; 
41,  96. 
le.     Accessory  parts. 
If.     Eyesocket. 

2f.     Eyelid.     3,  506;  2,  266;  25,  542;  13, 
^11,  974;  24,  598. 
Ig-.     Eyelashes. 

2g".     Glands  on  the  edge  of  the  lid. 
3g-.     Muscles. 
4g-.     Object  of  winking. 
5g.     Conjunctiva.     5,  301. 
3f.     Eyebrows.     25,  541. 
4f.     Lachr3'mal    apparatus.        2,    267;    3, 
507;  (),  334;  25,  543;    13,    II,    974. 
Ig.     Function. 

2g.     What  becomes  of  the  secretion? 
3g.     Physiology  of  weeping. 
5f.     Muscles  of  the  eyeballs.      3,   505;   (>, 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  133 

332;  25,  544;  10,745;    13,    II,    962; 

14,  369. 

2e.     Optical  apparatus.     3,  325. 

If.     In  g-eneral. 

Ig-.     Nature  of  Hg-ht.     3,516;   25,    531, 

41,  115. 

Ih.     Kinds  of  rays. 

2g.     Lenses. 

Ih.     Refraction.     3,  520;  35,  538. 

21i.     Formation  of  images. 

2f.     Kyeball. 

Ig-.     Coats.     3,509;    25,    546;    It,    IV, 

21;  14,  345;  12. 

Ih.     Sclerotic. 

li.     Structure  and  function  of. 

21i.     Cornea.     13,  II,  906. 

li.     Structure   and   nature    of.      3, 

509. 

3h.     Choroid. 

li.     Location  and  structure. 

2h.     The  iris.     17,  605. 

Ij.     Muscles  of. 

2j.     Color. 

3j.     Function.     13,  II,  936. 

3i.     The  pupil.       13,    II,    929;    15, 

569;41,  111. 

Ij.     Purpose.     5,  311;  11,  IV,  31; 
12. 

4h.     Retina.     2,  270;  5,  305;  10,  773; 

13,  II,  912;  14,  351;   24,    586. 

li.     Location. 

2i.     Structure.  25,  550;  11,  IV,  55. 

Ij.     Function     of     the    rods    and 


134  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

cones.     10,  787;    14,    357. 
3i.     Connection  with  the  optic  nerve. 
4i.     The   3^ellow     spot     or    area   of 
acute  vision.     J5,  511;  5,  306; 
18,  II,  947. 
5i.     Ph3'siolog'y  of. 
2g-.     Refracting  media.     2,   274;  3,  515; 
6,  328;  14,  358. 
Ih.     Cornea. 
2h.     Aqueous  humor. 
3h.     Crystalline  lens,     24,  593. 
li.     Location. 

2i.     Structure.     13,  II,   916. 
3i.     Physiolog}'  of. 

Ij.     How  chang-e  shape?     o,    516; 
25,  548,  560;  lO,  752. 
4h.     Vitreous  humor.     3,  516-;   13,  II, 
917. 
li.     Location  and  purpose. 
3g.     Optic  nerve.     25,  549;  14,  360;  41, 
109. 
Ih.     Where  enter  the  eye? 
2h.     The  blind  spot.     3,   532;  2,  272; 

5,  210;  41,  149. 
3h.     Visual  center  in  the  brain. 
4g.     Blood  vessels  of  the  eye.      14,  362; 
24,  594. 
Ih.     Where  enter  and  how  distributed? 
3e.     Comparative  anatomy  and  embr3'ology. 

13,  II,  976;  1.5,  597. 
4e.     Compare  the  eye   with    a   photographic 
camera.     3,  521;  13,  II,  919. 
If,     How  are  images  formed  on  the  ratina? 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  135 

13,  II,  923;  24,  608. 
Ig".     Accommodation    of   the   lens.      3, 
522;  5,  308;  13,  II,  926;    11,  IV, 
13;  11,  599;  15,  565;   12;  41, 
137. 
2g.     Why  inverted? 

3g".     Why  do  we  not  see  things  inverted? 
5e.     Defects  in  the  eye.     3,  525;  6,  329;  25, 
553;  10,  759;  13,  II,  931;  11,   IV,  47; 
24,  616;  15,  572;  12;  41,  131. 
If.     Near-sightedness. 

Ig.     Cause  and  remedy. 
2f.     Far-sightedness. 

Ig-.     Cause  and  remed3\ 
3f.     Why  must   old   people   wear   gflasses? 

3,  526. 
4f.     Irreg-ularity  in  curvature.     3,  528. 
Ig-.     Astigmatism.     2,  276. 
Ih.     Remedy. 
5f.     Opaque  bodies  in  the  refracting  media. 
3,  528. 
6e.     Effect  of  light  on  the  retina.      3,   530- 
534;  10,  776;    13,    II,    937;  14,    613; 
24,  627. 
If.     Physiology  of  vision  purple.     3,    535; 

13,  II,  915;  11,  IV,  115;  12. 
2f.     Other  theories. 
3f.     Duration  of  luminous  sensations.      3, 

539;  5,  312: 
^f.     Localizing-  power  of  the  retina. 

Ig".     Importance. 
5f.     Color  vision.     5,    311;    25,    568;    10, 
781;  13,  II.  952;   11     IV     S4;    14 


136  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

377;  24,  634;  15,  583;  12;  41,  158. 
Ig-.     Young-'s  theory.     3,542;    25,    571; 

13,  II,  955. 
2g.     Herring-'s  theory.     3,  548;  25,  575; 

13,  II,  936. 
3g-.     Color  blindness.     3,  545;  6,  336;  5, 
311;  25,  568;  13,  II,  957. 
7e.     Visual  perceptions.     3,    552;    10,    796; 
13,  II,  972;  11,  IV,  155;  24,  644;  12. 
If.     Of  distance. 
2f.     Of  size. 
3f.     Of  solids. 

4f.     Why  see  objects  singly  when   looking- 
with  both  eyes?     3,   553;    25,    580; 
10,  801;  14,  375;  24,  640;  41,  170. 
Se.     Hygiene  of  the  eyes.     2,  277;  (>,  336;  5, 
312- 
If.     Location  of  the   light  while  reading. 
2f.     When  glasses  should  be  recommended. 
Ig.     Importance  of  testing  the  eyes  of 
school  children. 
3f .     Effect  of  cold  on  the  eyes. 
4f.     General  directions   for  the  use  of  the 
eyes. 
2c.     Hearing.     5,  316;  17,  628;  41,  200. 

Id.     The  ear.     2,  279;  3,  557;  G,  343;  25,  494, 
507;  10,  807;  13,  II,  978;  11,   IV,    176- 
244;  14,  383;  24,  659;  15,  604;  12. 
le.     External  ear. 
If.     The  concha. 
2f.     Auditor}'  meatus. 
2e.     Middle  ear  or  tympanum.      13,  557;  14, 
387. 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  137 

If.     The  tympanic  membrane  or  drum.   10, 

809. 
2f.     Eustachian  tube. 

Ig".     Function. 
3f.     Bones  of  the  ear.     14,  388. 

Ig-.     Names,    shapes   and  arrang-ement. 
2g.     Function. 
3e.     Internal  ear.     3,  559;  14,  390;  41,  223. 
If.     Of  what  consist? 

Ig".     The  bonj  labyrinth.     3,  560. 
Ih.     Vestibule. 

li.     Location  and  description. 
Ij.     Otoliths. 
2h.     Semicircular  canals. 

li.     Their  ampulae. 
3h.     Cochlea. 

li.     General  anatomy.     10,  819. 
2g'.     Membranous  labyrinth.     3,  561. 
Ih.     In  the  vestibule. 

li.     Divisions  and  their  description. 
2h.     In  the  semicircular  canals. 

li.     Knding-  of  the    auditory   nerve. 
14,  395. 
2h.     In  the  cochlea. 

li.     Parts  and  their  arrang-ement. 
2i.     Org-an  of   Corti   or   nerve    end- 
endings.     3,  562. 
4e.     Nature  of  sound.    3,  564;  3,  282;  25,  494; 
10,  825;  14,  400;  24,    680;  41,   277. 
If.     Meaning  of  the  terms  loudness,  pitch 

and  timber. 
2f.     Sympathetic  vibrations.     3,  569. 
5e.     Physiology  of  the  ear.     3,  571;  10,  832. 


138  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

If.     Of  the  tympanic  membrane.      8,    571. 
2f.     Of  the  ear  bones. 
3f.     Of  the  cochlea. 

Ig-.     Different  views. 
4f.     Of  the  semicircular   canals.       2,    282; 
3,  574;  24,  694. 
6e.     Comparative  stud3%      1 5,  617. 
7e.     How  determine  direction  and    distance? 
8e.     Hyg-iene  of  the  ear.     0,  349;  5,  318. 
3c.     Touch.     3,     283;     3,   576;   0,   310;   5,   286; 
25,  477;  10,  834;  i:^,  II,  1013;  l-A,  327; 
17,  569;  2-1,  647;  15,  555;  41,  41. 
Id.     Special  nerve  ending's  for.     3,  576. 
le.     Tactile  cells.     3,  576. 
2e.     End  bulbs. 
3e.     Tactile  corpuscles.     41,45. 

If.     Location. 
4e.     Pacinian  corpuscles. 

If.     Location  and  function. 
2d.     What  is  touch?     3,  578;  41,  52. 
3d.     Localization   of     skin   sensations.       2, 
284;  3,  580;  25,  482. 
If.     Illustrations. 
4c.     Temperature  sense.     3,    582;    5,    290;    25, 
484;  13,  II,  1022;  11,   IV,    278;    14,    336; 
17,  576;  15,  554;  12. 
Id.     Explanation. 
2d.     Compare  with  touch. 
3d.     Function  of  this  sense. 
5c.     Smell.     2,  286;3,  587;5,  298;  lO,  849;   13, 
II,  1004,  11,  IV,  250;   14,  340,  581;  24, 
573,    15,  620;  12;  41,81. 
Id.     Nerve  ending-s  in  the  nose. 


SPKCIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  139 

2d.     Explain  just  liow  we  smell. 
3d.     Function  of  this  sense. 
6c.     Taste.     2,  286;  ti,  589;  0,   313;  5,   2%;   25, 
488;  10,  851;  13,  II,    1009;    11,    II,    246; 

14,  581;  21.,  570;  15,  623";  1*^;  41,  70. 
Id.     Taste  buds  and  their  location  (p.  56). 
2d.     What  kinds  of  substances  can   be  tasted? 
3d.     Function  of  this  sense? 
4d.     Hygiene  of. 
7c.     Muscular  sense.     2,  285;  3,  591;    (>,   312;    5, 
292;  25,  486;  10,  844,  13,   II,    1026;    11, 
IV,  295;  14,  334;  15,  557;  1*^;41,  68. 
THE  VOICE. 
la.     Organs  immediately  concerned    in.      2,   289;  6, 

356;  5,  321;  11,  IV,  306. 
lb.     The  larynx.     3,  634;  25,   239;    10,    861;    11, 
IV,  312;  13,  II.  633.  24,  705;  14,  260;   17, 
512. 
Ic.     Location. 

2c.     Structure. 

Id.     The  cartilages. 
2d.     Vocal  cords.     (>,  358. 
le.     Location. 

2e.     Structure  and  nature  of. 
3d.     Muscles, 
le.     How  act? 
2a.     Nature  of  and  just  how   produced.      3,    633;   2, 
288;  G,  359;  VS,  II,  640,  647;  24,  711;  14,  264; 
17,  517. 
lb.     The  vowels. 
2b.     Consonants. 

Ic.     Classification.     3,  643. 
3b.     Range  of  the  human  voice. 
3a.     Hygiene  of  the  vocal  cords.     G,  364. 


140  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES. 


THE  EYE. 

Materials.  Get  from  a  butcher  either  the 
head  of  some  mammal  which  still  has  the  eyes 
uninjured,  or  some  e^-es  that  have  been  care- 
fully removed.  Have  ready  the  eyes  of  a  small 
mammal  that  have  been  hardened  by  soaking- 
in  Perenyi's  fluid  for  24  hours,  then  80  per  cent 
alcohol,  with  several  chang-es  of  the  latter,  and 
finallv  preserved  in  80  percent,  alcohol.  Get 
an  assortment  of  skeins  of  colored  worsted  from 
the  store  or  from  a  dealer  in  kindergarten 
supplies;  a  test  card  for  eyes  from  James  W. 
Queen  &  Co.,  Philadelphia;  a  photographic 
camera;  a  tube  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  10  inches  long  and  black  on  the  in- 
side; a  prism;  a  rotating  apparatus;  and  an 
electric  machine. 

1.  Stkucture.  Examine  an  eye  that  has  been 
carefully  removed  from  its  socket^  preferablj- 
after  its  position  was  noted,  and  observe  the 
four  muscles  which  pass  backward  towards 
the  back  of  the  socket,  and  the  two  oblique 
ones  which  serve  to  roll  the  eye.  Make  a  draw- 
ing to  show  these  muscles. 

2.  Notice  the  following  on  the  outside  of  the 
eyeball: 

a.  The  cut  end  of  the  optic  nerve. 

b.  The  nature  of  the  sclerotic  coat. 

c.  The  transparent  cornea. 

3.  Look  through  the  cornea  and  observe: 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  141 

a.  The  iris.     What  is  its  color? 

b.  The  i)iii)il,  formed  by  the  iris, 

4.  With  sharp  scissors  cut  across  the  cornea  and 
notice  that  a  liquid,    the   aqueous   liuuior, 

escapes.     Note  the  thickness  of  the  cornea. 

5.  Trim  away  the  cornea  and  examine  the  iris. 
Slit  it  with  the  scissors,  lift  up  one  edg-e  and 
see  if  it  is  of  the  same  color  on  the  inside  as  on 
the  out. 

6.  Remove  the  iris  and  observe  beneath  it  the 
crystalline  lens.  Notice  how  it  is  fastened 
around  its  edg^e.  Remove  the  lens  without  in- 
jury and  put  it  on  a  printed  pag^e.  Examine 
the  letters  through  the  lens.     Effect? 

7.  Cut  the  lens.  Of  what  consistency?  Is  it 
eltistic? 

8.  Trim  away  a  little  more  of  the  front  of  tlie 
eye  and  notice  the  jelly-like  vitreousliuuior. 
Pour  it  out  carefully  and  observe: 

a.  The  whitish,  delicate    membrane   which 

lines  the  back  portion  of  the  eye, 
the  retina. 

b.  The  brownish  or  black   elioroicl    coat, 

which  lines  the  front  of  the  eyeball 
and  passes  back  under  the  retina. 
Observe  the  blood  vessels  in  it. 

c.  The  place  where  the  optic  nerve   enters. 

d.  If  the   retina  is    in    place,    the    "yellow 

spot"  or  area  of  acute  vision. 

9.  Notice  the  thickness  of  the  sclerotic  coat,  also 
its  toug-hness.  Does  it  seem  to  help  preserve 
the  shape  of  the  eyeball  as  well  as  to  protect  it? 

10,         Imbed  in  celloidin  an  eye  hardened  according- 


142  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

to  directions  g-iven  under  materials,  but  before 
doing-  so  a  hole  should  be  cut  in  one  side  of  the 
ball  and  the  vitreous  humor  carefully  removed 
without  injuring  the  retina  (see  appendix  for 
celloidin  imbedding-.) 

11.  Cut  horizontal  sections  of  the  eje,  stain  in 
borax  carmine  or  hccmatoxjlin  and  eosin, 
mount  and  observe  how  the  cornea  is  joined  to 
the  sclerotic  coat.  Observe  the  following 
structure  of  the  cornea: 

a.  The  outer  epithelial  layer,  just  under 

which  is  a   narrow    elastic  l.iyer. 

b.  The  main  body  of  the  cornea   which    is 

full  of  corneal  corpuscles,  whose 
edges  show. 

c.  The  thin  inner  layer. 

12.  In  the  same  section  examine  the  part  where  the 
iris  branches  off  and  notice: 

a.  The  ciliary  muscles  which  control  the 

crystalline  lens. 

b.  The  structure  of  the  iris. 

c.  The  structure  of  the  choroid  coat. 

d.  The  fastening  of  the  crystalline  lens  and 

the  structure  of  the  lens  itself. 

13.  If  a  fresh  lens  be  soaked  in  a  solution  of  5 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid  to  5  cubic  centimeters 
of  water  for  24  hours,  then  washed  in  water 
and  stained  in  borax  carmine,  it  may  be  teased 
apart  so  that  the  fibers  of  the  lens  will  show 
nicel}'. 

14.  Examine  the  retina  in  the  section  used  above 
and  note  the  rods  and  cones  near  the  choroid 
coat.     This  section  will  likely  be  too  thick  for 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  143 

the  observation  of  all  the  elements  of  the 
retina.  If  it  is  desired  to  study  the  retina 
more  in  detail,  imbed  in  paraf&n  a  portion  of 
an  eye  which  contains  the  retina  then  cut  thin 
sections.  These  sections  m.3.y  be  stained  in 
ha2matox3'lin,  and  eosin.  For  other  methods 
see  80,  pag-e  365. 

1.  KxPKRiMKNTs.  Focus  a  photographic  camera 
that  has  a  ground  glass  back  and  notice  how 
the  image  is  inverted.  Draw  a  diagram  in 
your  note-book  to  show  how  this  inversion 
takes  place. 

2.  Take  a  fresh  eye  of  some  animal  and,  if  it  is 
one  with  a  thick  coat,  trim  off  a  portion  of  the 
back  of  the  e^-e  and  place  the  trimmed  off  por- 
tion over  the  end  of  the  tube  mentioned  under 
materials.  With  j'our  e3'e  at  the  other  end  of 
the  tube,  notice  that  an  inverted  image  is 
formed  on  the  retina  similar  to  the  one  in  the 
camera. 

3.  If  the  lens  of  the  camera  is  fitted  with  an  iris 
diaphragm  or  different  sized  diaphragms,  try 
the  largest  and  then  the  smallest  and  notice  the 
eft'ect  on  the  light.  Compare  with  the  iris  in 
the  eye. 

4.  Look  at  the  black  board  or  some  other  black 
object  for  a  few  minutes  than  quickly  into  a 
mirror  and  observe  the  size  of  the  pupil.  Look 
out  of  the  window  or  at  a  bright  light  then 
observe  again  the  size  of  the  pupil.  What  in- 
ference? 

5.  With  a  prism  separate  the  rays  of  sunlight 
into   the  various  colors.      If  the   laboratory  is 


144  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

supplied  with  a  rotating^  apparatus  and  discs, 
an  attempt  should  be  made  to  combine  the 
various  colors  by  rotation,  Try  the  primary 
colors,  dark  and  light  colors. 

6.  If  there  is  an}'  apparatus  for  producing-  an 
electric  spark,  a  revolving-  black  and  white 
disc  should  be  observed  in  a  dark  room  by  the 
aid  of  the  sparks.  The  black  and  white  spaces 
should  be  seen  distinctly  when  viewed  b}^  the 
sparks  but  the  disc  appears  gray  as  it  revolves 
in  ordinary  light.  How  does  the  experiment 
illustrate  the  duration  of  luminous  sensations? 

7.  Those  who  are   known   not   to   be   color   blind 

should  test  the  other  members  of  the   class  for 

color    blindness.       Have    ready     a   number  of 

skeins  of  various  colors  of  worsted.      Pick   out 

a  pale  green  one  and    ask   the   person   who   is 

being  tested  to  pick   out    all    the   other   skeins 

that  are  of  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  color. 

If  he  picks  out  some  that  are  quite  different  he 

is   likely   color   blind.       Do   not   mention   the 

names  of  the  colors  to  the  person  who  is  being 
tested. 

8.  Take  a  skein  of  medium  purple  and  go 
through  the  same  process. 

9.  Make  the  same  test,  using  a  light  red  skein 
of  medium  shade.  By  these  three  tests  it  is 
easy  to  determine  whether  or  not  a  person  is 
color  blind. 

10.  Hold  your  book  at  the  distance  from  the  eye 
at  which  the  print  is  read  with  the  least  effort. 
What  do  you  find  this  distance  to  be?  If  it  is 
much  less  than  12  inches  you  are  near  sighted. 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 


145 


If  much  more  than  15  inches,  you  are  far 
sighted.  Children  can  see  objects  nearer  the 
eyes  than  grown  persons. 

11.  Hold  your  finger  12  or  15  inches  in  front  of 
you  in  a  vertical  position  then  look  at  some 
object  across  the  room.  Wh}^  does  the  finger 
appear  double?  Wh}-  is  it  indistinct?  Reverse 
the  operation  by  looking  at  the  finger  and  then 
noticing  the  effect  on  the  object  across  the 
room. 

12.  Make  in  your  note  book,  three  or  four  inches 
apart,  two  squares  whose  sides  are  one  inch 
in  length.  Across  one,  draw  horizontal  lines 
at  equal  distances  apart.  Across  the  other, 
make  similar  vertical  lines.  How  do  the  two 
squares  now  appear?  This  illustrates  imper- 
fect, visual  judgment. 


s  s  s  s  s  s 


A 


/ 


/ 


B 


FIG.    5. 

Observe  the  letter  S  in  figure  5.  How  do  the 
upper  and  lower  ends  compare  in  size?  Invert 
the  letters  and  what  is  the  result?  Measure  the 
two  lines,  A  and  B.  Why  do  they  not  appear 
of  the  same  length? 


146  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

14.  Hold  a  pencil  in  a  vertical  position,  about  6 
inches  in  front  of  the  face,  then  look  at  it  with 
both  eyes.  Close  the  left  eye  and  place  a  finger 
in  a  vertical  position  so  that  it  seems  to  cover 
one  end  of  the  pencil.  Try  to  strike  the  pencil 
with  the  fmg-er.     You  will  likely  miss.      Why? 


B 


FIG.    6. 


15.  Close  the  left  eye  and  look  at  the  letter  A 
w  th  the  rig^ht.  While  doing  so,  move  the  book 
back  and  forth  until  a  point  is  reached  where  B 
is  not  visible.  Rays  from  it  now  fall  on  the 
blind  spot  of  the  eye. 

16.  Obtain  one  of  Queen's  test  cards,  hang*  it 
where  there  is  good  light  then  make  the  fol- 
lowing tests: 

a.  Try  to  read  the  letters  under  number  1 

at  a  distance  of  20  feet.  Do  you 
have  any  difficult  in  recognizing 
any  of  them?  If  you  do,  walk  nearer 
until  they  can  all  be  seen. 

b.  Stand  20  feet  from  the  card  and   look   at 

the  black  lines  in  number  2.  Do 
they  all  appear  of  the  same  black- 
ness and  are  all  distinct?  If  not, 
which  ones  arc  indistinct?  This 
test  is  for  astiginatisiii  or  un- 
equal curvature  of  the  eye.  Eyes 
that  are  badly  astigmatic  cause 
headaches  and  other  disorders. 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  147 

c.     Find  the  distance  from  the  face  at  which 

the  letters  in  number   3  can  be  read. 

How  near  can  you  see  them?      How 

far  away? 

If  your  eyes  are  found  seriously   defective  by 

any  of  the  above  tests,  and  you  have  not  done 

so,  you  should  consult  an  oculist.       Should  the 

test  card  here   recommended   not   be   at   hand, 

any  other  such  card  may  be  used  and  the  teacher 

can  give  directions  for  the  experiments. 

THE  EAR. 

Materials.  Head  of  a  fish;  model  of  an  ear; 
a  rabbit  or  cat's  head;  a  large  tuning  fork; 
steel  bars;  a  small  watch. 

1.  Examine  a  good  model  of  the  ear  and  locate  all 
of  its  chief  parts. 

2.  If  a  pickerel's  head  {Esox  lucius)  can  be  had, 
the  student  should  carefully  dissect  out  the 
semicircular  canals  of  the  ear.  The  head  of 
any  fish  in  which  the  bones  are  soft  will 
answer.  The  portion  of  a  mammal's  skull 
which  contains  the  ear  may  be  softened  by 
soaking  in  weak  acid,  and  then  the  essential 
parts  of  the  ear  may  be  dissected  out. 

3.  Cutout  the  ear  portion  from  the  skull  of  a 
rabbit  or  cat,  that  has  just  been  killed,  place  it 
in  Perenyi's fluid  until  decalcified,  transfer  it 
to  80  per  cent,  alcohol  for  a  day,  change  the 
alcohol  once  or  twice,  then  70  per  cent,  alcohol 
and  finally  borax  carmine.  After  staining, 
wash  in  acid  alcohol,  dehydrate,  imbed  in 
paraffin  and  cut  sections  vertical  to  the  coils  of 


148  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

the  cochlea.  Mount  and  notice  the  turns  of 
the  cochlea.  If  desired,  the  minute  structure 
of  the  cochlea  ma}'  be  studied. 

4.  Set  a  larg"e  tuning-  fork  in  vibration  and 
notice  its  pitch.  If  a  small  bar  of  steel  is  at 
hand,  hit  it  with  a  mallet  and  notice  its  pitch. 
Try  a  much  smaller  piece.  You  will  find  one 
whose  pitch  is  so  hig-h  that  your  ear  cannot 
detect  its  tones. 

5.  Blindfold  a  person  and  test  his  sense  of  di- 
rection by  making"  sounds  in  different  direc- 
tions about  him.  Try  with  both  ears  open 
then  with  first  one  and  then  the   other   closed. 

6.  With  a  watch,  the  teacher  should  test  a  few 
members  of  the  class  to  see  if  their  sense  of 
hearing  is  perfect,  then  a  few  such  students 
should  test  the  other  members  of  the  class. 
Test  each  ear  separately  and  let  each  student 
record  the  distance  at  which  he  can  hear  the 
ticking  distinctl}'.  Try  a  tuning  fork  instead 
of  a  watch.  Many  persons  are  partially  deaf 
but  have  not  discovered  it. 

7.  Close  the  ears  then  see  if  you  can  hear  a 
watch  tick.  Place  the  watch  between  the 
teeth.     What  effect?  How  explain? 

TASTE  AND  SMELL. 

Matekials.  Sugar;  salt;  quinine;  potato; 
apple;  roasted  coffee;  perfumes;  onions;  oils 
that  give  off  odors. 
1.  Wipe  the  tongue  dr}'  and  then  place  on  its 
tip  a  few  crystals  of  sugar.  Are  they  tasted 
immediately;  If  not  why?    Try  sugar  on  differ- 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  149 

ent  parts  of  the  tong^ue.  Where  is  it  best 
tasted? 
2-  Make  a  solution  of  quinine  in  water.  Touch 
the  tong"ue  on  the  tip  with  a  very  small  drop  of 
the  solution.  Is  it  readily  tasted?  Try  the 
back  portion  of  the  tong"ue  in  the  same  manner. 
Where  is  the  quinine  tasted  best? 

3.  Try  salt  in  the  same  manner  as  sugar. 
Where  is  it  best  tasted? 

4.  Blindfold  a  person,  have  him  hold  his  nose 
then  put  small  pieces  of  potato  and  apple  on 
his  tong-ue,  at  different  times,  and  see  if  he  can 
tell  which  is  which. 

5.  Chew  some  roasted  coffee,  first  with  the  nose 
closed  and  then  open.  What  difference  is 
noticed? 

6.  Try  different  substances  that  have  odor,  using- 
different  streng-ths,  and  determine  how  far 
away  they  can  be  detected  and  how  much  more 
sensitive  some  noses  are  than  others.  Per- 
fumes, onions,  coffee  and  various  oils  will 
answer  for  this  experiment. 

TOUCH  AND  TEMPERATURE. 

Matp:riai,s.     Forceps;  test  tubes;  hot  water; 
pieces  of  wire;  some  fur. 
1.  With  a  pair  of  forceps  that  have  blunt  points, 

touch  the  skin  of  a  blindfolded  person  in 
different  places  and  determine  for  each  place 
how  far  apart  the  points  may  be  and  still  be 
felt  as  one.  Try  the  tips  of  the  fing-ers,  tip  of 
the  tongue,  palm  of  the  hand,  face,  back  of  the 
neck  and  the  arm.  Both  points  must  be  put 
down  at  the  same  time. 


150  SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE 

2  Put  one  hand  in  water  which  is    100   degrees 

F.,  the  water  feels  warm.  Put  the  same  hand 
now  in  water  at  85  deg^rees  and  it  feels  cold. 
Why?  Put  the  other  hand  in  water  that  is  85 
detfrees  and  what  is  the  difference  in  sensation? 

3.  Blindfold  a  person  and  have  ready  two  test 
tubes,  one  with  hot  and  the  other  with  cold 
water.  Touch  the  skin  in  various  places,  first 
with  one  tube  and  then  the  other,  and  have  the 
person  tell  which  is  the  hot  and  which  the  cold 
tube.  Try  the  same  experiment  with  the  ends 
of  wires,  one  quite  warm  and  the  other  cold. 
Have  the  blindfolded  person  touch  wool,  fur, 
metal  and  wood,  and  report  which  seems  the 
cooler.     Explain  why. 

THE  VOICE. 

1.  Obtain  from  the  butcher  the  larynx  of  a  hog-  or 
a  calf.  Examine  the  epig^lottis  and  notice  how 
it  closes  over  the  windpipe.  Observe  the  two 
flaps,  the  vocal  cords,  which  partially  close 
the  upper  opening"  of  the  windpipe.  Notice 
the  cartilag-es  which  compose  the  larynx.  Try 
to  dissect  them  out. 

2.  Over  the  end  of  a  tube  tie  two  strips  of  thin 
sheet  rubber  in  such  a  manner  that  the  end  of 
the  tube  will  be  all  closed  except  a  narrow  slit 
between  the  two  edg-es  of  the  rubber.  With 
the  lung's,  force  air  throuji^h  the  tube  and  note 
the  sound  produced.  Try  to  make  the  rubber 
a  little  tighter  and  note  the  difference  in  sound. 

3.  Close  the  nose  then  speak  the  word  "])link- 
ing-,"  after  which  repeat  it  with  the  nose  open. 


SPECIAL  SENSES  AND  THE  VOICE  151 

What  difference?  The  cavity  in  the  pharynx 
serves  as  a  resonator. 
4.  Speak  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  notice 
with  each  the  position  of  the  lips,  teeth  and 
tong-ue.  The  latter  org-ans  help  to  modify  the 
sounds. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS. 


No  Special  order   has   been  observed  in  mak- 
ing- up  the  following-  list. 

1.  Dictionary,  an}'  unabridg-ed. 

2.  Martin's     the     Human     Body,   briefer  course. 

Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  N.  Y.     One  of  the  best 
briefer  texts. 

3.  Martin's  the  Human   Body,    advanced   course. 

Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  N.  Y.     One  of  the  best 
books  published. 
.  4.     Shepard's  Chemistry.      D.    C.   Heath  and  Co., 
Boston.      An}'     other    g-ood  Chemistry   will 
answer  just  as  well.     Refer  to  the  index. 
5.     Colton's  Practical   Physiolog-y.     D.    C.    Heath 
and  Co.,  Boston.     Good  for  laboratory  work. 
Has  some  excellent  diagrams. 
(J.     Blaisdel's    Practical    Physiolog-y.        Ginn    and 
Co.,  Boston,     Excellent  for  hygiene. 

7.  Overton's      Applied     Physiology.       American 

Book  Co.,  Chicago.     Not  always  reliable. 

8.  Hutchinson's   Physiology.      Maynard,   Merrill 

and  Co.,  N.  Y.     Good  for  hygiene. 

9.  Huxley's  Physiology,  MacMillan  Co.,  N.  Y. 
This  old  book  is  still  excellent  in  many  re- 
spects. 

H).  American  Text-book  of  Physiology.  W.  B. 
Saunders,  Phila.  The  best  large  American 
text-book.     It  is  strictly  a  Physiology. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  153 

11.  Foster's  Physiolog-y,  complete,  5  volumes.  Mac- 

Millan  Co.,  N.  Y.     One  of  the  best. 

12.  Foster's  Physiolog-y,  one  volume.    Lea  Brothers 

and  Co.,  Phila.     An  abridg-ed  edition  of  No. 
11. 

13.  Landois  and    Stirling's   Phjsiolog-y.      Eng-lish 

edition,  2  volumes.     Charles  Griftin  and  Co., 
London.     Excellent.     Finely  illustrated. 

14.  Thornton's  Physiology.     Longmans,  Green  and 

Co.,  N.  Y.  An  excellent  little  book. 

15.  Mills'  Animal  Physiology.      D.    Appleton    and 

Co.,  N.  Y.     Excellent.     Is  more  or  less   com- 
parative. 

16.  Foster    and    Shore's   Physiology.      MacMillan 

Co.,  N.  Y.     A  good  elementary  text. 

17.  Yeo's  Manual    of   Physiology.      P.    Blakiston, 

Sons  and  Co.,  Phila.     An  advanced  book  that 
has  many  good  points. 

18.  Gray's  Anatomy.   Lea  Brothers  and  Co.,  Phila., 

Excellent. 

19.  Quain's  Anatomy.     Longmans,   Green  and  Co., 
""  N.  Y.     May  be  had  in  9  parts  and  ranks  first 

as  an  anatomy. 

20.  Cyclopedias  (Johnson's,   American,  Brittanica, 

International). 

21.  Stewart's  Physiology,  W.  B.    Saunders,   Phila. 

An  excellent  advanced  text. 

22.  Thompson's   Zoology.      D.    Appleton    and   Co. 

A    good    text  for  reference   in    comparative 
work.     Any  other  good  Zoology  will  answer. 

23.  McKendrick's  Text-book  of  General  Physiology. 

MeicMillan    Co.,   N-    Y.       One    of   the  best 
general  Physiologies. 

24.  McKendrick's  Text-book  of  Special  Physiology. 

MacMillan   Co.,    N.  Y.       An    excellent   ad- 
vanced book. 


154  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

*4iy.  Rettger's  Advanced  Studies  in  Physiolog-^'.  In- 
land Publishing-  Co.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 
Covers  about  the  same  ground  as  No.  3,  but 
the  language  is  simpler. 

20.  Wiedersheim's  Structure  of  Man.  MacMillan 
Co.,  N.  Y.      For  comparative  anatomy. 

"41,  Prudden's  Bacteria.  G.  Putnam's  Sons,  N.  Y. 
Excellent  for  h3'giene. 

*4S»  Morrison's  Ventilating  and  Warming  of  School 
Buildings.     D.  Applcton  and  Co.,  N.  Y. 

29.  Wiedersheim's   Comparative    Anatomy.      Mac- 

Millan Co.,  N.  Y.     Excellent. 

3().  Stirling's  Histolog}'.  P.  Blakiston,  Sons  and 
Co- ,  Phila.     Excellent  for  methods. 

31.  Lincoln's  Sanitar}-  Conditions  of  School  Houses. 

32.  Stirling's  Practical  Physiology.     P.  Blakiston. 

Sons  and  Co.,  Phila.  An  excellent  book  for 
the  laboratory. 

33.  Foster    and    Eangley's    Practical    Physiology. 

MacMillan  Co.,  N.  Y.  Excellent  for  direc- 
tions in  dissecting  and   for  histology. 

34:.  Sternberg's  Disinfection  and  Individual  Pro- 
phylaxis against  Infections  Diseases. 

35.  Brodie's  Experimental  Physiology.  Longmans, 
Green  and  Co.,  N.   Y.     For    advanced    work. 

30.  Donaldson's  the  Growth  of  the  Brain.    Scribner, 

N.  Y.     Excellent. 

37.     Horsley's  the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord.      Charles 

Griffin,   London. 
3iS.     Ferrier'^i  the  Functions  of  the   Brain.       Smith, 

Elder  and  Co.,  London.     Excellent. 
3t>.     Starr's  Brain  Surger}'.   Wm.  Wood  andCo,,  N.  Y. 

40.  Sach's   Nervous  Diseases    of    Children.       Wm. 

Wood  and  Co.  N.  Y. 

41.  McKendrick  and  Snodgrass'    Physiology  of  the 

Senses,  Scribner.  N.  Y. 


APPENDIX. 


The  following  apparatus  and  reagents  will  be 
found  necessar}^  for  successfully  carrying-  out  the  di- 
rections given  in  the  preceding  pages.  There  are 
many  other  pieces  of  apparatus  and  numerous  rea- 
gents that  might  be  mentioned,  but  it  is  thought  that 
tbe  beginner  will  do  better  work  if  limited  to  a  few 
of  the  standard  hardening  fluids  and  stains,  and  to 
simple  methods  of  preparation.  For  further  details, 
reference  should  be  made  to  the  standard  works  on 
histology. 

The  reagents  and  apparatus  here  mentioned,  un- 
less otherwise  indicated,  may  be  purchased  of  the 
Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Rochester  N.  Y.,  or 
Chicago,  or  of  any  other  dealer  in  microscopical  sup- 
plies. 

DISSECTING. 

Good  dissecting  may  be  done  with  a  sharp  pocket 
knife,  but  it  is  convenient  for  each  student  to  have  a 
scalpel,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  pair  of  forceps  and  a  dis- 
secting needle-  Directions  for  dissecting  are  found 
in  the  text.  One  or  two  good  razors  are  necessary  for 
cutting  sections  and  a  small  saw  will  be  needed  fre- 
quently. 

HARDENING  AND  PRESERVING  FLUIDS. 

Alcohol.  Alcohol  was  formerly  used  for  hard- 
ening a  great  m-dnj  kinds   of  tissues,  but   now   many 


156  APPENDIX 

other  fluids  have  taken  its  place.  When  used  for 
hardening-^  fresh  tissue  should  first  be  placed  in  50 
per  cent,  alcohol  for  from  12  to  24  hours,  then  be 
transferred  to  70  per  cent,  for  the  same  time,  then  to 
80  per  cent.,  where  it  may  remain  until  needed,  but 
the  last  alcohol  should  be  chang-edtwo  or  three  times. 
Material  which  is  intended  for  dissection  may  be 
placed  directly  into  70  per  cent,  alcohol  for  24  hours 
and  then  transferred  to  80  per  cent,  where  it  may  re- 
main until  used.  The  best  alcohol,  as  it  is  sold,  is 
usually  about  95  per  cent,  and  from  this  the  other 
streng-ths  may  be  made  by  adding*  water.  For  his- 
tolog"ical  purposes,  absolute  alcohol  is  sometimes 
used.  It  is  expensive  but  only  small  quantities  are 
needed.  Ordinary  alcohol  may  be  obtained  by  Hig-h 
Schools  and  other  institutions  free  of  revenue,  and, 
in  case  any  quantity  is  used,  it  should  be  obtained  in 
that  manner.  As  small  a  quantity  as  10g"allons  may 
be  so  purchased  but  it  is  better  to  get  it  by  the  half 
barrel  or  barrel.  Directions  for  obtaining*  alcohol 
free  of  revenue  nia}^  be  had  b}'  application  to  the 
nearest  collector  of  internal  revenue. 

Formalin.  This  substance  has  but  recently 
come  into  use  but  it  is  rapidly  displacing-  alcohol  for 
many  purposes,  because  it  is  cheaper  and  material 
preserved  in  it  is  better.  As  obtained,  formalin  is  a 
40  per  cent,  solution  of  formaldehyde  in  water.  For 
preserving-  purposes  a  4  per  cent,  solution,  calling- 
the  formalin  as  obtained  100  per  cent.,  is  commonly 
used.  If  the  material  is  for  histological  purposes  a 
5  or  even  a  10  per  cent,  solution  is  recommended  by 
some.  Material  hardened  in  formalin  will  answer 
for  nearly  all  purposes  for  which    hardened   material 


APPENDIX  157 

is  needed  in  the  preceding-  exercises. 

Chromic  acid.  This  substance  has  long-  been  a 
standard  hardening-  reag-ent.  It  is  used  in  weak 
aqueous  solutions,  ranging  from  .2  to  1  per  cent. 
Material  that  is  being-  hardened  in  chromic  acid 
should  be  kept  in  the  dark,  the  liquid  should  be 
chang-ed  frequently  and  from  5  to  10  days  are  re- 
quired for  hardening-.  After  hardening-,  the  material 
must  be  thoroughly  washed  in  water  for  several 
hours  until  every  trace  of  acid  is  removed.  Chromic 
acid  material  does  not  always  stain  readily. 

PkkEnyi's  Fluid.  This  is  an  excellent  harden- 
ing reagent  and  it  is  made  as  follows:  10  per  cent, 
nitric  acid  40  parts,  .5  per  cent,  chromic  acid  30 
parts,  and  95  per  cent,  alcohol  30  parts.  Fresh  ma- 
terial should  be  used,  and  small  objects  will  harden 
in  from  3  to  6  hours,  larger  objects  in  from  12  to  24 
hours,  and,  if  it  is  desired  to  decalcify  bones,  they  may 
be  left  in  the  fluid  for  several  days.  After  harden- 
ing, the  material  is  transferred  directly  to  80  per 
cent,  alcohol,  which  should  be  changed  once  a  day  for 
two  or  three  days.  This  solution  will  be  found  very 
convenient  and  satisfactory. 

OsMic  ACID.  Osmic  acid  comes  in  one  half  or 
one  gram  sealed  glass  tubes  and  is  expensive.  A  1 
per  cent,  solution  is  most  frequently  used  and  it  is 
prepared  by  breaking  a  1  gram  tube  in  100  cubic 
centimeters  of  distilled  water.  The  tube  must  be 
under  water  when  broken.  Weaker  solutions  are 
easily  made  from  the  1  per  cent,  solution.  It  is  an 
excellent  hardening  fluid  and  may  be  used  to  advant- 
age where  recommended  in   the  preceding  exercises. 


158  APPENDIX 


STAINS. 


The  beg-inner  will  get  the  best  results  by  limit- 
ing- himself  to  a  few  of  the  standard  stains. 

Borax  cakmine.  This  stain  is  usually-  made  by 
dissolving  1  gram  of  carmine  in  a  solution  of  borax, 
2  g-rams  to  200  cubic  centimeters  of  water.  The 
whole  is  heated  to  boiling-  and  then  a  few  drops  of 
acetic  acid  are  added.  After  the  stain  has  stood  for 
24  hours  it  may  be  filtered,  w^hen  it  is  ready  for  use. 
A  drop  or  two  of  carbolic  acid  will  keep  it  from  spoil- 
ing-. Material  stained  in  borax  carmine  should  be 
transferred  from  the  stain  to  70  per  cent,  alcohol, 
which  contains  5  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  100 
cubic  centimeters,  where  it  may  remain  from  1  to  24 
hours  according  to  the  size  of  the  object. 

PiCRO-CARMiNE.  This  stain  had  better  be  pur- 
chased ready  for  use.  Directions  are  found  for  its 
use  in  the  text.  Sections  stained  with  it  must  not  be 
washed  in  water.  The}^  are  most  easih'  mounted 
directly  from  the  stain  in  Farrant's  solution. 

Haematoxylin  and  haemalum.  Ha^matoxylin 
must  be  made  several  months  before  it  can  be  used, 
hence  it  is  better  to  purchase  it  from  some  reliable 
dealer.  Haeraalum  is  easily  made  and  answers  the 
same  purpose.  In  fact  it  is  much  better  for  some 
things.  Dissolve  1  gram  of  ha^matein  in  50  cubic 
centimeters  of  *J0  per  cent,  alcohol,  b}'  heating-,  and 
50  grams  of  alum  in  1000  cubic  centimeters  of  dis- 
tilled water.  Pour  the  two  solutions  together.  After 
standing,  it  ma}'  be  filtered.  These  stains  are  known 
as  the  logwood  stains  and  they  give  excellent  re- 
sults. 


APPENDIX  150 

EosiN.  This  is  an  aniline  stain  and  is  usually 
used  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution.  It  acts  well  as  a 
double  stain  with  hcematoxylin  or  hei?malum. 

SrLVP:R  NITRATE.  A  one  fourth  to  one  half  per 
cent,  solution  is  frequently  used  and  it  stains  inter- 
cellular substance.  Material  to  be  stained  is  placed 
in  the  solution  for  from  5  to  10  minutes  then  it  is 
transferred  to  water  and  placed  in  the  lij^dit  until  it 
turns  brown.     It  is  now  transferred  to  alcohol. 

Magenta.  1  g-ram  of  maj^-enta  dissolved  in  5 
cubic  centimeters  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  and  15  cubic 
centimeters  of  water,  with  the  addition  of  20  cubic 
centimeters  of  g'lycerine,  makes  a  g-ood  stain  for 
blood  corpuscles. 

STAINING. 

In  most  cases  it  will  be  found  best  to  stain  small 
pieces  of  material  in  bulk.  This  is  done  after  the 
material  has  been  hardened.  Since  the  stains  are 
g-enerally  of  an  aqueous  solution,  the  substance  to  be 
stained  must  be  first  transferred  from  the  alcohol;  in 
which  it  is  preserved,  to  water.  Sections  cut  in 
celloidin  may  be  easily  stained  after  they  are  cut, 
but  paraffin  sections  to  l)e  stained  must  be  fastened 
to  the  g"lass  slip  with  a  fixative,  the  paraffin  then 
melted  by  heat  and  the  slide  stood  in  turpentine  or 
xylol  until  the  paraffin  is  dissolved.  The  slide  is 
now  placed  in  absolute  alcohol  for  several  minutes, 
passed  throug"h  95,  80  and  70  per  cent,  alcohol  and 
then  to  the  i^tain.  "When  the  section  is  stained  it  is 
washed,  passed  back  throug"h  the  alcohols  and  finally 
into  xylol  or  turpentine,  after  which  a  drop  of  Canada 
balsam  is  added  and  the  cover  g-lass    applied.       After 


160  APPENDIX 

staining"  in  the  logwood  stains  the  sections  are 
washed  in  water,  but  after  borax  carmine  they  should 
be  placed  in  the  alcohol  mentioned  under  that  stain. 
Picro-carmine  stained  sections  should  be  mounted 
directly  in  Farrant's  solution. 

OTHER  S0LUTI0N5. 

Iodine.  Dissolve  2  g^rams  of  iodide  of  potassium 
in  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water  then  add  iodine 
flakes  to  saturation.  This  solution  is  used  in  testing- 
for  starch. 

Fehling's  solution.  Solution  A.  103.92 
grams  of  pure  crystalline  cupric  sulphate  are  dis- 
solved in  500  cubic  centimeters  of  distilled  water. 
Solution  B.  Dissolve  320  grams  of  Rochelle  salts 
in  500  cubic  centimeters  of  warm  water  and  filter. 
Solution  C  Dissolve  150  grams  of  caustic  soda  in 
500  cubic  centimeters  of  water.  Equal  parts  of  the 
three  solutions  are  poured  together  when  needed  for 
use.     The  solution  is  used  in  testing  for  grape  sugar. 

Normal  salt  solution.  This  solution  is  pre- 
pared by  adding  6  grams  of  common  salt  to  1000 
cubic  centimeters  of  distilled  water.  It  is  used  for 
diluting  blood  and  for  washing  out  bood  vessels. 

Farrant's  solution.     This  is  used  as  a   mount- 
ing medium  and  only  small  quantities  will  be  needed. 
It  should  be  purchased. 
inBEDDING. 

It  is  necessary  to  imbed  nearly  all  animal  tissue 
before  it  can  be  sectioned. 

Imbedding  in  paraffin.  Hardened  material, 
either  stained  or  unstained,  is  transferred  from  80  to 
95  per  cent,  alcohol  for  from  12  to  24   hours,    then    to 


APPENDIX  161 

absolute  alcohol  for  several  hours,  and  from  this  to 
xylol  or  cedar  oil  until  it  is  clear,  which  will  require 
from  1  to  24  hours,  depending  on  the  nature  and  size 
of  the  object.  Xylol  will  generally  give  better  re- 
sults than  cedar  oil.  The  object  is  now  transferred 
to  a  pan,  which  contains  melted  paraffin,  where  it 
should  be  kept  for  2  to  24  hours,  depending  on  the 
size  and  nature  of  the  material. 

A  good  but  cheap  method  of  keeping  the  paraffin 
at  the  proper  temperature  is  as  follows:  Have  legs 
about  6  inches  long  fastened  to  a  piece  of  sheet  copper, 
which  is  4  inches  wide  at  one  end,  about  12  inches 
long,  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  other  end.  A 
gas  or  alcohol  flame  may  be  kept  under  the  point  and 
a  pan  containing  the  paraffin  is  placed  on  the  table 
in  such  a  position  that  the  paraffin  will  just  be  melted 
in  one  half  of  it  and  unmelted  in  the  other  half.  Tin 
spoons  with  the  handles  bent  so  that  they  will  hang 
over  the  sides  of  the  pan,  with  the  spoon  level  on  the 
bottom,  will  serve  to  hold  the  objects  to  be  imbedded. 
The  paraffin  should  be  neither  too  soft  nor  too  hard. 
It  is  better  to  have  some  of  different  hardnesses,  then 
these  can  be  mixed.  When  cut,  the  paraffin  should 
form  a  perfect  ribbon  without  crumpling   or   curling. 

After  the  object  has  remained  in  the  melted 
paraffin  the  required  time,  it  should  be  transferred  to 
some  small  vessel  which  contains  melted  paraffin,  where 
it  may  remain  until  cooled.  A  convenient  vessel  for 
this  purpose  may  be  made  by  taking  two  pieces  of 
lead  and  bending  them  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  L. 
They  should  be  from  one  half  to  one  inch  wide  and 
may  be  placed  on  a  piece  of  glass  so  as  to  form  a  box. 


162 


APPENDIX 


into  which  the  paraffin  is  to  be  poured.  The  object 
should  be  placed  in  the  box  of  melted  paraffin  in  the 
position  in  which  it  is  to  be  sectioned. 

Imbedding  in  celloidin.  Celloidin  usuall}^ 
comes  dry  in  cakes  or  shreds.  It  should  be  dissolved 
in  a  mixture  of  one  half  absolute  alcohol  and  one  half 
pure  sulphuric  ether.  Three  solutions,  thin,  medium 
and  thick  should  be  made.  Objects  to  be  imbedded 
are  passed  from  80  throug^h  95  per  cent,  and  absolute 
alcohol,  the  same  as  for  paraffin  imbedding-,  and  then 
into  a  one  half  absolute  alcohol  and  ether  solution, 
before  being-  placed  in  the  celloidin.  Objects,  be- 
ginning- with  the  thin,  should  remain  in  each  celloidin 


FIG.    7. 


solution  for  24  hours,  after  which  the^Muay  be  placed 
in  the  proper  position  on  the  end  of  a  cork  or  block 
of    wood    and    covered    with  thick    celloidin.      The 


APPENDIX 


163 


celloidin  is  allowed  to  dry  on  the  outside,  when  the 
whole  is  immered  in  80  per  cent,  alcohol.  After  24 
hours,  the  celloidin  will  be  ready  for  sectioning,  but 
it  may  be  kept  in  the  alcohol  for  any  leng"th   of   time. 

SECTIONING. 

In  order  to  cut  good  sections  it  is  necessary  to 
have  some  kind  of  a  microtome,  and,  unfortunately, 
there  are  not  any  very  satisfactory  ones  for  sale  at  a 
very  low  price.  Figure  7  shows  a  very  convenient, 
simple,  hand  microtome,  which  may  be  had  from  the 


Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Co,,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  for 
about  ^10.  It  is  an  all  around  microtome  and,  with  a 
sharp  razor  and  some  experience,  very  good  sections 
may  be  cut.  The  imbedded  object  is  fastened  in  the 
clamp,  and,  if  it  is  in  paraffin,    the   block   should  be 


164  APPENDIX 

trimmed  square.  The  razor  must  be  brought  for- 
ward with  its  edg-e  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the 
block.  The  object  is  fed  up  b}-  the  screw  from 
beneath.  The  razor  should  be  kept  flat  on  the 
microtome.  For  celloidin,  the  razor  should  be  drawn 
across  the  block  at  an  angle  and  both  it  and  the 
celloidin  must  be  kept  wet  with  80  per  cent,   alcohol. 

Figure  8  shows  an  excellent  automatic  microtome 
which  may  be  had  of  Joseph  Zentmayer,  Philadel- 
phia, for  about  $20.  With  it,  both  paraf&n  and  cel- 
loidin material  may  be  sectioned,  for  the  razor  can  be 
set  at  any  angle,  and  the  sections  can  be  made  as 
thin  as  desired.  Paraffin  sections  will  come  from  the 
razor  in  a  ribbon.  For  more  expensive  microtomes, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  catalogues  of  various 
dealers  in  microscopical  supplies. 
MOUNTING. 

"^Paraffin  sections  are  fixed  to  the  slide  b}^  applying 
a  very  thin  coat  of  Mayer's  albumen  fixative.  This 
is  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  filtered,  fresh  white 
of  egg  and  glycerine.  Put  on  a  small  drop,  spread 
it  around  then  rub  off  as  much  as  3''ou  can  w^th  your 
finger.  The  section  is  now  pressed  down  on  the  slide 
and  then  it  is  heated  until  the  paraffin  melts.  The 
slide  is  then  stood  in  ajar  of  turpentine  or  x3iol  for 
4  or  5  minutes,  then  removed,  a  drop  of  Canada  bal- 
sam added  and  the  cover  glass  applied.  The  slide  is 
now  ready  to  be  examined,  or  it  maj  be  set  aside  in  a 
horizontal  position  until  wanted.  The  balsam  will 
final  I}'  dry.  Neat  wooden  boxes  for  holding  25  slides 
each  may  be  had  of  any  dealer. 

♦Directions   for   staining   paraffin    sections   will   be   found  on 
page  159. 


APPENDIX  165 

Celloidin  sections  may  be  transferred  to  water 
and  stained,  if  the  object  was  not  stained  before  im- 
bedding-, they  are  then  washed,  passed  throug-h  the 
alcohol  (dehydrated)  to  95  per  cent,  and  from  this 
into  oil  of  berg-amot  or  a  mixture  of  1  part  of  pure 
carbolic  acid  with  3  parts  of  xylol,  where  they  should 
remain  until  transparent.  Xylol  is  next  applied, 
then  Canada  balsam  and  the  cover  glass. 

INJECTING  BLOOD   VESSELS. 

A  g-ood  injecting-  syringe  is  desirable  for  inject- 
ing- the  blood  vessels  of  an  animal,  but  the  injecting- 
mass  may  be  put  in  some  vessel  that  can  be  lifted 
several  feet  above  the  animal,  and  which  has  a  rubber 
tube  leading- from  it  to  the  canula  that  is  to  be  in- 
serted into  the  blood  vessel  to  be  injected.  For  dis- 
secting- purposes,  a  starch  injecting-  mass  is  most  con- 
venient. It  is  made  as  follows:  20  parts  of  powdered 
starch  are  thoroughly  mixed  with  20  parts  of  water, 

5  parts  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  and  10  parts  of  the 
color  mixture  mentioned  below,  after  which  the  whole 
is  strained  through  cloth.  The  color  mixture  is  made 
by  stirring-  1  part  of  any  dry  color,  that  will  not  stain, 
such  as  Vermillion,  red  lead,  Berlin  blue  or  chrcme 
yellow,  with  1  part  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  and  1  part 
of  g-lycerine.  The  injecting-  mass  must  be  thoroug-hly 
shaken  before  it  is  used. 

For  histolog-ical  purposes,  a  gelatine  mass  should 
be  used.  A  carmine  mass  may  be  made  as  follows: 
Soak  20  g-rams  of  good  gelatine  in  cold  water  for  5  or 

6  hours  then  pour  off  the  extra  water  and  heat  the 
gelatine  in  a  double  vessel  until  it  melts.  Rub  8 
grams  of  carmine  to  a  paste  in  a  mortar,  with  water 


166  APPENDIX 

add  10  cubic  centimeters  of  strong"  ammonia,  mix 
thoroug-hl}^,  then  add  100  cubic  centimeters  of  water. 
Pour  the  color  mass  into  the  melted  gelatine,  stirring- 
briskly.  Add  acetic  acid,  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  un- 
til the  odor  of  ammonia  disappears  and  the  color  has 
changed  to  a  lig-ht  red.  The  mass  is  now  filtered 
through  flannel.  This  mixture  must  be  used  warm 
and  the  animal  should  be  in  warm  water.  A  gela- 
tine mass,  ready  prepared,  may  be  had  of  dealers. 

An  animal  to  be  injected  is  first  etherized,  and 
just  as  soon  as  it  is  dead,  the  body  is  opened  and  a 
slit  is  made  in  the  ventricle  so  that  as  much  blood 
will  escape  as  possible.  It  is  best  to  inject  warm 
normal  salt  solution  into  the  vessels  to  wash  out  the 
remaining  blood.  When  ready  for  the  color  mass, 
the  canula,  which  may  be  of  glass  or  metal,  is  in- 
serted through  the  heart  into  the  aorta  or  pulmonary 
arter}',  tied  and  the  pressure  applied.  Before  remov- 
ing the  canula,  tie  the  vessel  that  has  been  injected. 
A  different  colored  mass  may  be  injected  into  the 
two  vena  cavce. 

PREPARATION  OF  BONES. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  skeletons  and  skulls  for 
comparison  and  these  may  be  prepared  by  first  boil- 
ing the  bones  in  a  liquid  soap  solution  then  wash- 
ing, scraping  and  polishing-.  The  soap  solution  is 
made  by  adding  12  grams  of  saltpeter,  75  grams  of 
hard  w4iite  soap  and  150  cubic  centimeters  of  stronger 
ammonia  to  2000  cubic  centimeters  of  soft  water. 
The  soap  may  first  be  dissolved  in  a  portion  of  the 
water  b}'  heating-.  The  bones  are  cleared  of  as  much 
flesh  as  possible  then  boiled  for  three  fourths  of  an 


APPENDIX  167 

hour  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  of  soap  solution  to  4 
parts  of  water.  The}^  are  then  boiled  for  half  an 
hour  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  of  soap  solution  to  1  part 
of  water,  when  the)^  are  immersed  in  cold  water  and 
washed.  All  surplus  flesh  should  be  removed  with 
scalpel  and  forceps. 


Errata.  Page  69,  line  21,  for  materials  read,  21,  page  68. 
Page  76,  foot  note,  for  alimiyitaTy  read,  alimentary.  Page  78,  line 
22,  for  Haemaglohin  read,  Haemoglobin.  Page  143,  line  27,  for 
than  read,  then. 


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